# Alpaca and Llama Manure Management: Nutrient Content and Pasture Impact ## Key Takeaways - Alpaca and llama manure exhibits lower moisture and organic matter content compared to ruminant livestock, with typical dry weight nitrogen (N) ranging from 1.5-2.5% for alpacas and 1.0-2.0% for llamas. - Effective composting requires managing a carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratio of 25:1 to 30:1, often necessitating the addition of carbon-rich materials like straw or wood shavings to camelid manure's inherent 15:1-30:1 ratio to prevent ammonia volatilization. - Achieving pathogen and weed seed reduction necessitates maintaining internal compost pile temperatures between 130-150°F (55-65°C) for a minimum of 15 days, with active composting typically requiring 60-90 days followed by a 30-60 day curing period. - Pasture application rates of composted camelid manure should generally be between 2-4 tons per acre per year, critically adjusted based on annual soil testing for nutrient levels, particularly phosphorus, to prevent soil buildup and water contamination. - Direct application of fresh camelid manure is contraindicated due to risks of root burn, weed seed dispersal, and nutrient runoff; composting stabilizes nutrients, reduces pathogen loads, and improves soil structure prior to pasture or crop integration. --- Alpaca and llama manure is a valuable resource for pasture and crop production, but its nutrient content, composting requirements, and application rates differ from those of cattle, sheep, or horse manure. Camelid manure typically contains lower moisture and organic matter than ruminant manure, with nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) concentrations that vary with diet, age, and management. Direct application of fresh manure can burn plant roots, contribute to weed seed spread, and create nutrient runoff risks. Composting stabilizes nutrients, reduces pathogen loads, and improves soil structure. This article provides camelid farmers with evidence-based guidance on manure nutrient composition, composting methods, pasture application rates, and integration with rotational grazing systems. ## At a Glance: Camelid Manure Management Overview | Parameter | Alpaca Manure | Llama Manure | General Recommendation | |-----------|---------------|--------------|------------------------| | Typical nitrogen content (dry weight basis) | 1.5-2.5% N | 1.0-2.0% N | Test manure annually, adjust application rates based on soil test results | | Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C:N) | 15:1 to 25:1 | 20:1 to 30:1 | Target 25:1 to 30:1 for active composting, add carbon sources if below 20:1 | | Moisture content as excreted | 60-70% | 55-65% | Compost at 40-60% moisture, add dry bedding if too wet | | Recommended composting time (active pile) | 60-90 days | 60-90 days | Turn pile every 2-4 weeks, monitor internal temperature (130-150°F) | | Pasture application rate (composted, tons/acre/year) | 2-4 tons | 2-4 tons | Base on soil N and P levels, do not exceed crop removal rates | | Weed seed viability after composting | Low if temperature >130°F for 15 days | Low if temperature >130°F for 15 days | Use hot composting method, avoid adding weed seed heads to pile | | Phosphorus content (dry weight basis) | 0.3-0.8% P2O5 | 0.2-0.6% P2O5 | Monitor soil P levels, avoid buildup in high-P soils | | Potassium content (dry weight basis) | 0.5-1.5% K2O | 0.4-1.2% K2O | Potassium is generally adequate for most pastures, supplement only if soil test indicates deficiency | ## Nutrient Composition of Alpaca and Llama Manure Camelid manure nutrient content depends on diet composition, forage quality, animal age, and whether bedding material is included. Alpacas and llamas are pseudoruminants with a three-compartment stomach, and their digestive efficiency influences manure nutrient concentrations. The [Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations](https://www.fao.org/dad-is) provides general guidance on livestock manure management, including the importance of understanding local manure characteristics for sustainable soil fertility. ### Nitrogen Content and Forms Nitrogen in fresh camelid manure is primarily in organic forms (undigested feed proteins and microbial biomass) with a smaller fraction of ammonium nitrogen. The organic nitrogen must be mineralized by soil microbes before plants can use it. Composting accelerates this mineralization and reduces the risk of nitrogen volatilization as ammonia. The [USDA Agricultural Research Service](https://www.ars.usda.gov/) conducts research on nutrient cycling in livestock systems, including the fate of nitrogen from manure applications. Fresh alpaca manure typically contains 1.5-2.5% total nitrogen on a dry weight basis, while llama manure ranges from 1.0-2.0%. These values are lower than poultry manure (3-5% N) but comparable to sheep manure (1.5-2.5% N). The carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C:N) of camelid manure is narrower than that of cattle manure, which means it decomposes more quickly but can also lose nitrogen more readily if not managed properly. ### Phosphorus and Potassium Content Phosphorus in camelid manure is present as both organic phosphorus (phytate and other organic compounds) and inorganic phosphate. The [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition) notes that phosphorus requirements for camelids are relatively low compared to ruminants, and excess dietary phosphorus is excreted in manure. This can lead to phosphorus buildup in soils with repeated manure applications. Potassium content in camelid manure is generally adequate for pasture grasses and legumes. Potassium is not bound in organic compounds as tightly as nitrogen or phosphorus, so it is readily available to plants after application. However, potassium can leach from sandy soils, so split applications may be beneficial on coarse-textured soils. ### Variability with Diet and Season Manure nutrient content varies with forage quality and concentrate feeding. Alpacas and llamas grazing on high-quality pasture or alfalfa hay will produce manure with higher nitrogen content than animals on mature grass hay or straw. Seasonal changes in forage digestibility also affect manure composition. The [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en) division provides resources on feed evaluation and manure nutrient estimation for various livestock species. Farmers should collect manure samples for laboratory analysis at least once per year, ideally during the same season, to track nutrient trends. Composite samples from multiple collection points within the manure storage area provide a more representative analysis than single grab samples. ## Composting Camelid Manure Composting transforms fresh manure into a stable, pathogen-reduced, weed-seed-free soil amendment. The process requires managing carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, moisture, aeration, and temperature. Camelid manure has a relatively narrow C:N ratio, which means it may need additional carbon sources (straw, wood shavings, dried leaves) to achieve optimal composting conditions. ### Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio Management The ideal C:N ratio for active composting is 25:1 to 30:1. Fresh camelid manure typically has a C:N ratio of 15:1 to 25:1, which is lower than the target range. Adding carbon-rich materials such as straw (C:N 80:1), wood shavings (C:N 200-500:1), or dried leaves (C:N 50:1) raises the ratio and reduces nitrogen loss as ammonia. The [USDA National Agricultural Library](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare) provides information on composting practices for livestock operations. A practical approach is to mix one part manure with one to two parts carbon source by volume, then adjust based on pile temperature and odor. If the pile smells strongly of ammonia, the C:N ratio is too low and more carbon material should be added. If the pile fails to heat up, the C:N ratio may be too high or moisture may be inadequate. ### Moisture and Aeration Composting microbes require moisture levels of 40-60% for optimal activity. Fresh camelid manure is typically 55-70% moisture, which is within or slightly above the target range. Adding dry bedding or carbon sources helps reduce moisture content. The pile should feel like a wrung-out sponge: moist but not dripping when squeezed. Aeration is critical for aerobic decomposition. Piles should be turned every 2-4 weeks using a tractor-mounted bucket, compost turner, or pitchfork. Passive aeration through perforated pipes or a base layer of coarse material can supplement turning. The [USDA Agricultural Research Service](https://www.ars.usda.gov/animal-production-and-protection) has developed composting systems for various livestock species that can be adapted for camelid operations. ### Temperature Monitoring and Pathogen Reduction Internal pile temperature should reach 130-150°F (55-65°C) for at least 15 days to kill weed seeds and reduce pathogen populations. Temperatures above 160°F (71°C) can kill beneficial microbes and slow decomposition. Use a long-stem compost thermometer to monitor temperature at multiple depths and locations within the pile. The [U.S. Food and Drug Administration](https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary) provides guidance on biosecurity practices for animal operations, including manure management. Proper composting reduces the risk of transmitting parasites or pathogens from manure to pasture or crops. ### Composting Time and Maturity Active composting of camelid manure typically requires 60-90 days with regular turning. After the active phase, the compost should cure for an additional 30-60 days to stabilize organic matter and allow microbial activity to decline. Mature compost has a dark, crumbly texture, an earthy smell, and a temperature that remains near ambient. Immature compost can tie up soil nitrogen as microbes continue to decompose organic matter, potentially causing nitrogen deficiency in plants. A simple maturity test is to place a handful of moist compost in a sealed plastic bag for 3-5 days. If the bag swells or produces a foul odor, the compost is not fully mature. ## Pasture Application Rates and Timing Applying composted camelid manure to pasture provides nutrients for grass and legume growth, improves soil organic matter, and reduces the need for synthetic fertilizers. However, overapplication can lead to nutrient runoff, phosphorus buildup, and water quality problems. Application rates should be based on soil test results and crop nutrient removal. ### Determining Application Rates Soil testing is the foundation of manure application planning. Collect soil samples from each pasture field every 2-3 years, testing for pH, organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and micronutrients. The [Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations](https://www.fao.org/dad-is) emphasizes the importance of soil testing for sustainable nutrient management. A general guideline is to apply 2-4 tons of composted camelid manure per acre per year, but this rate should be adjusted based on soil test results and the nutrient content of the compost. For example, if soil phosphorus levels are already high, reduce application rates to avoid phosphorus buildup. If soil potassium is low, higher rates may be justified. ### Timing of Application Apply composted manure in late summer or early fall after the last grazing rotation, or in early spring before active growth begins. Avoid applications during winter when soils are frozen or saturated, as this increases the risk of nutrient runoff. Split applications (half in fall, half in spring) can improve nutrient use efficiency on sandy soils. The [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition) notes that camelids are sensitive to internal parasites, and manure management is an important component of parasite control. Applying composted manure to pastures that will be grazed by camelids should be done with consideration of parasite life cycles. Composting at proper temperatures kills most parasite eggs and larvae, but recontamination from wildlife or other sources can occur. ### Incorporation and Surface Application Incorporating compost into the soil within 24-48 hours of application reduces nitrogen loss through ammonia volatilization and minimizes phosphorus runoff. On established pastures, incorporation is not possible without damaging the sod. In these situations, surface application is acceptable, but nitrogen losses may be higher. Applying compost when rain is expected within 24 hours can help move nutrients into the soil. For no-till or pasture topdressing, use a broadcast spreader calibrated to deliver the desired rate. Avoid applying compost in thick layers that could smother grass or create anaerobic conditions. A uniform application of 0.25-0.5 inches is typical for pasture topdressing. ## Integration with Grazing Management Manure management is closely linked to grazing management. Rotational grazing systems concentrate manure in paddocks, which can lead to nutrient hotspots and uneven distribution. Strategic manure application can complement grazing patterns and improve overall pasture productivity. ### Nutrient Cycling in Rotational Grazing In rotational grazing systems, camelids deposit manure directly on pasture during grazing periods. This manure contributes to nutrient cycling but is often unevenly distributed, with higher concentrations near water sources, shade, and feeding areas. The [USDA Agricultural Research Service](https://www.ars.usda.gov/) has studied nutrient distribution patterns in grazing systems and their implications for soil fertility. Composted manure from barns or drylot areas can be applied to paddocks that receive less manure during grazing, helping to balance nutrient distribution across the farm. Soil testing of individual paddocks can identify areas with low or high nutrient levels and guide targeted applications. ### Managing Nutrient Hotspots Areas where camelids congregate, such as around water troughs, mineral feeders, and shade structures, accumulate high concentrations of manure nutrients. These hotspots can lead to excessive soil phosphorus and potassium levels, as well as potential nitrate leaching. The [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en) division provides guidance on managing nutrient hotspots in livestock systems. To reduce hotspot formation, rotate the location of water troughs and feeders periodically. Use portable shade structures or move feeding areas to different paddocks each season. If hotspots have already developed, consider harvesting hay from those areas to remove nutrients, or apply composted manure to other parts of the farm instead of the hotspot areas. ### Pasture Renovation and Manure Incorporation When renovating pastures, incorporate composted manure into the soil before seeding. This provides nutrients for establishing seedlings and improves soil organic matter. Application rates of 3-5 tons per acre are common for pasture renovation, but rates should be based on soil test results. The [USDA National Agricultural Library](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare) provides resources on pasture renovation and soil management for livestock operations. Incorporating manure before seeding also reduces the risk of nitrogen loss and weed competition. ## Records and Measurements Keeping accurate records of manure production, composting, and application helps farmers make informed management decisions and comply with nutrient management regulations. Records also provide data for evaluating the economic and environmental performance of manure management systems. ### Manure Production Records Track the volume or weight of manure collected from barns, drylots, and pasture cleanings. Record the number of animals, feeding program, and bedding type for each collection period. This information helps estimate annual manure production and nutrient output. A simple record-keeping system includes: - Date of collection - Number and type of animals - Volume or weight of manure collected - Bedding type and amount - Estimated moisture content - Any observations about manure consistency or odor ### Composting Records For each compost batch, record: - Date pile was constructed - Ingredients and proportions (manure, carbon sources, water) - Initial moisture content and C:N ratio - Turning dates and methods - Temperature readings (at least weekly) - Any problems encountered (odor, flies, excessive moisture) - Date compost was considered mature and ready for use The [USDA Agricultural Research Service](https://www.ars.usda.gov/animal-production-and-protection) has developed record-keeping templates for composting operations that can be adapted for camelid farms. ### Application Records For each manure or compost application, record: - Date of application - Field or paddock name and acreage - Application rate (tons per acre or cubic yards per acre) - Nutrient content of the material (from laboratory analysis) - Method of application (broadcast, incorporated, topdressed) - Weather conditions at time of application - Any follow-up observations (crop response, runoff, odor) These records are essential for nutrient management planning and can help identify trends in soil fertility over time. ## Common Failure Patterns Several common problems can reduce the effectiveness of camelid manure management. Recognizing these patterns early allows farmers to make corrective adjustments. ### Ammonia Loss from Fresh Manure Fresh camelid manure stored in piles without proper carbon management can lose significant nitrogen as ammonia gas. This reduces the fertilizer value of the manure and contributes to air quality concerns. Signs of ammonia loss include a strong ammonia odor and visible gas rising from the pile. To prevent ammonia loss, mix manure with carbon-rich materials immediately after collection, cover the pile with a tarp or compost blanket, and maintain adequate moisture. If ammonia odor is detected, add more carbon material and turn the pile to incorporate it. ### Weed Seed Contamination Camelid manure can contain weed seeds if animals consume weeds in pasture or hay. Composting at temperatures above 130°F for 15 days kills most weed seeds, but seeds near the surface or edges of the pile may survive. The [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition) notes that proper composting is an effective weed seed management strategy. To minimize weed seed contamination, avoid adding weed seed heads to the compost pile, ensure all parts of the pile reach proper temperatures, and monitor compost for weed germination after application. If weed problems persist, extend the composting time or increase turning frequency. ### Nutrient Imbalance in Soil Repeated applications of camelid manure without soil testing can lead to phosphorus buildup in soil, especially if application rates exceed crop removal. High soil phosphorus levels can contribute to algal blooms in nearby water bodies if runoff occurs. The [Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations](https://www.fao.org/dad-is) emphasizes the importance of balanced nutrient management to protect water quality. To prevent nutrient imbalance, test soil every 2-3 years, apply manure based on phosphorus instead of nitrogen if soil phosphorus is already high, and consider using manure on fields with lower phosphorus levels. ### Pathogen Survival in Improper Compost If compost piles do not reach and maintain adequate temperatures, pathogens such as E. coli, Salmonella, and internal parasite eggs may survive. This poses risks to animal health and, if manure is used on food crops, human health. The [U.S. Food and Drug Administration](https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary) provides guidance on pathogen reduction in animal manure. To ensure pathogen reduction, monitor pile temperature regularly, maintain temperatures above 130°F for at least 15 days, and turn the pile to ensure all material is exposed to high temperatures. If temperature targets are not met, extend the composting period or add more nitrogen-rich material to stimulate microbial activity. ## Limitations and Professional Escalation Camelid manure management has limitations that farmers should recognize. When problems exceed the scope of on-farm management, professional assistance should be sought. ### Limitations of On-Farm Management - Laboratory analysis of manure and soil requires specialized equipment and expertise that most farms do not have. - Composting in wet climates or during winter months can be challenging due to moisture management and temperature control. - Nutrient content of manure varies with diet, season, and management, making precise application rates difficult without regular testing. - Small-scale operations may not have access to composting equipment such as turners or thermometers. - Regulatory requirements for manure storage and application vary by location and may require permits or plans. ### When to Seek Professional Assistance Consult a certified crop advisor, extension specialist, or nutrient management planner if: - Soil test results show very high or very low nutrient levels that are difficult to interpret. - Manure application rates exceed 5 tons per acre per year and soil phosphorus levels are elevated. - Compost piles consistently fail to reach target temperatures despite proper management. - Water quality concerns arise, such as algal blooms in ponds or elevated nitrate levels in wells. - Regulatory requirements for nutrient management plans or manure storage permits are unclear. The [USDA National Agricultural Library](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare) provides directories of extension specialists and agricultural professionals who can assist with manure management planning. ## Welfare and Safety Context Manure management affects animal welfare, worker safety, and environmental health. Proper practices protect all three. ### Animal Welfare Considerations Clean, dry bedding reduces the risk of foot problems, respiratory issues, and parasite infections in camelids. The [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition) emphasizes the importance of clean housing for camelid health. Manure management that keeps bedding dry and reduces ammonia levels in barns improves animal comfort and reduces disease risk. Overgrazing pastures due to inadequate manure management or nutrient planning can lead to poor forage quality and reduced animal condition. Maintaining proper stocking rates and applying compost to maintain soil fertility supports healthy pasture growth. ### Worker Safety Composting and manure handling involve physical hazards such as heavy lifting, machinery operation, and exposure to dust and gases. The [U.S. Food and Drug Administration](https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary) provides general guidance on worker safety in animal agriculture. Specific safety practices include: - Wearing gloves and boots when handling manure - Using respiratory protection in dusty or high-ammonia environments - Ensuring adequate ventilation in enclosed manure storage areas - Following equipment safety protocols for tractors, spreaders, and compost turners - Keeping children and visitors away from active compost piles and manure storage areas ### Environmental Safety Manure management practices that prevent nutrient runoff protect water quality in streams, ponds, and groundwater. The [Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations](https://www.fao.org/dad-is) provides guidance on environmentally sustainable livestock manure management. Key environmental practices include: - Applying manure at rates that do not exceed crop nutrient removal - Avoiding applications on frozen or saturated soil - Maintaining vegetated buffer strips along waterways - Storing manure in covered or contained areas to prevent leaching - Composting to reduce pathogen loads and stabilize nutrients ## Frequently Asked Questions ### What is the nitrogen content of alpaca manure compared to llama manure? Alpaca manure typically contains 1.5-2.5% total nitrogen on a dry weight basis, while llama manure ranges from 1.0-2.0%. These values are estimates and vary with diet, forage quality, and animal age. Laboratory analysis of manure samples from your specific operation provides the most accurate nutrient content data. ### Can I apply fresh camelid manure directly to pasture? Fresh camelid manure should not be applied directly to pasture because it can burn plant roots, introduce weed seeds, and create nutrient runoff risks. Composting for 60-90 days stabilizes nutrients, reduces pathogen loads, and kills most weed seeds. If fresh manure must be applied, incorporate it into the soil within 24 hours and avoid applications during wet or frozen conditions. ### How long does it take to compost alpaca or llama manure? Active composting of camelid manure typically requires 60-90 days with regular turning every 2-4 weeks. After the active phase, the compost should cure for an additional 30-60 days to stabilize organic matter. Total time from fresh manure to mature compost is usually 90-150 days, depending on pile management, temperature, and moisture conditions. ### What carbon sources should I add to camelid manure for composting? Straw, wood shavings, dried leaves, and shredded paper are effective carbon sources for composting camelid manure. Straw has a C:N ratio of approximately 80:1, wood shavings range from 200:1 to 500:1, and dried leaves are about 50:1. Mix one part manure with one to two parts carbon source by volume, then adjust based on pile temperature and odor. ### How much composted camelid manure should I apply per acre? A general guideline is 2-4 tons of composted camelid manure per acre per year for pasture. However, application rates should be based on soil test results and the nutrient content of the compost. If soil phosphorus levels are high, reduce rates to avoid phosphorus buildup. If soil potassium is low, higher rates may be justified. ### Does composting camelid manure kill parasite eggs? Proper composting at internal temperatures above 130°F (55°C) for at least 15 days kills most parasite eggs and larvae. The [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition) notes that composting is an effective method for reducing parasite contamination in manure. However, recontamination from wildlife or other sources can occur after composting. ### Can I use camelid manure on vegetable gardens or food crops? Composted camelid manure can be used on vegetable gardens and food crops if it has been properly composted to reduce pathogen loads. The [U.S. Food and Drug Administration](https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary) provides guidance on using animal manure for food crop production. Apply composted manure at least 90 days before harvest for crops that contact the soil, and 120 days for root crops. ### How do I test camelid manure for nutrient content? Collect a composite sample from multiple locations within the manure storage area or compost pile. Mix the samples together and submit approximately one pound to a soil testing laboratory that offers manure analysis. Request analysis for total nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, organic matter, and moisture content. Test at least once per year, ideally during the same season. ## Related Farming Guides - [Pasture Management For Sheep](/knowledge/animal-farming/sheep/pasture-management-for-sheep) - [Livestock Waste Management Composting Anaerobic Digestion Nutrient Recovery](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/livestock-waste-management-composting-anaerobic-digestion-nutrient-recovery) - [Drone Remote Sensing Pasture Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/drone-remote-sensing-pasture-management) - [Camel Pasture Forage Management Grazing Systems Browse Species](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/camel-pasture-forage-management-grazing-systems-browse-species) - [Pasture Pig Farming Breeds Setup And Rotational Grazing](/knowledge/animal-farming/swine/pasture-pig-farming-breeds-setup-and-rotational-grazing) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Water Buffalo Genetic Improvement and Breeding Programs](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/water-buffalo-genetic-improvement-breeding-programs) * [Camel Farm Biosecurity: Disease Prevention and Quarantine Protocols](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/camel-farm-biosecurity-disease-prevention-quarantine-protocols) * [Water Buffalo Farm Equipment and Infrastructure](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/water-buffalo-farm-equipment-infrastructure) ## References and Further Reading - [www.fao.org](https://www.fao.org/dad-is) - [www.ars.usda.gov](https://www.ars.usda.gov/) - [www.merckvetmanual.com](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition) - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. - [Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). USDA National Agricultural Library. - [Animal Production and Protection](https://www.ars.usda.gov/animal-production-and-protection). USDA Agricultural Research Service. - [Animal and Veterinary Resources](https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. - [Influence of seabird guano and camelid dung fertilization on the nitrogen isotopic composition of field-grown maize (Zea mays)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.06.035). Journal of Archaeological Science, 2012. - [Archaeometric contributions to agropastoral production research in Aguada society (Ambato Valley, Catamarca)](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.05.049). Journal of Archaeological Science Reports, 2018. - [Isotopic insights into quinoa agriculture at an Andean hillfort town (cal ad 1250-1450)](https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-023-00952-y). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 2024. - [Estimation of carbon footprint and sources of emissions of an extensive alpaca production system](https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-022-03271-y). Tropical Animal Health and Production, 2022. - [Biochemical potential of methane (BMP) of camelid waste and the Andean region agricultural crops](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.12.071). Renewable Energy, 2021. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.