# Alpaca and Llama Genetic Selection and Herd Improvement ## Key Takeaways - **Fiber fineness and uniformity are primary economic drivers for alpaca genetic selection, with mean fiber diameter (microns) and standard deviation being critical metrics; breeders typically select the top 20-30% of yearlings for fineness and cull animals with high fiber diameter variability.** This objective data, often obtained via OFDA testing, directly influences the value of alpaca fleece for next-to-skin wear, with a comfort factor (percentage of fibers below 30 microns) above 85% being a common target. - **Conformation and structural soundness are essential for long-term herd health and reproductive efficiency, necessitating visual appraisal and structural assessments of traits like leg angles and bite alignment.** Animals exhibiting structural faults that compromise mobility or overall well-being are candidates for removal from the breeding program to prevent heritable issues. - **Reproductive efficiency, measured by breeding success and offspring survival rates, is a critical component of herd improvement, with a typical selection pressure to retain females that conceive within two breeding cycles.** Accurate record-keeping of mating dates, pregnancy checks, and birth records is paramount for identifying and retaining genetically superior breeding stock. - **Maintaining genetic diversity through controlled inbreeding is vital for preventing congenital defects and ensuring long-term herd viability, with a general limit of 6.25% inbreeding coefficient for planned matings.** This requires meticulous pedigree management for a minimum of three generations and the strategic rotation or introduction of unrelated breeding males to avoid inbreeding depression. - **Heritability estimates for fiber traits in alpacas and llamas are generally moderate to high, enabling predictable genetic progress through selection, with fiber diameter exhibiting higher heritability than fleece weight or staple length.** Selection response is directly influenced by heritability, selection differential (the superiority of selected parents), and generation interval, with shorter intervals accelerating progress but increasing inbreeding risk. --- Genetic selection in alpacas and llamas requires a structured approach that balances fiber quality, conformation, reproductive performance, and long-term genetic diversity. This article provides breeders with practical guidance on establishing breeding objectives, managing pedigrees, applying selection pressure, controlling inbreeding, and making replacement decisions. The focus is on genetic improvement of the herd instead of reproductive management, which is covered in a separate article on breeding and reproduction. ## At a Glance: Genetic Selection Priorities for Camelid Breeders | Selection Priority | Key Measurement | Record Keeping Requirement | Typical Selection Pressure | |-------------------|-----------------|---------------------------|---------------------------| | Fiber fineness | Mean fiber diameter (microns) | Individual fleece test results per shearing | Select top 20-30% of yearlings | | Fiber uniformity | Standard deviation of fiber diameter | OFDA or similar lab reports | Cull animals with high variability | | Conformation and soundness | Visual appraisal and structural assessment | Body condition scores, leg angles, bite alignment | Remove animals with structural faults | | Reproductive efficiency | Breeding success and offspring survival | Mating dates, pregnancy checks, birth records | Retain females that conceive within 2 cycles | | Genetic diversity | Inbreeding coefficients | Pedigree records for minimum 3 generations | Limit matings above 6.25% coefficient | ## Defining Breeding Objectives for Your Herd Breeding objectives must be specific, measurable, and aligned with your production goals. Alpaca fiber (Vicugna pacos) is classified as one of the finest animal fibers in the world, after the vicuña (Vicugna vicugna), and is highly valued by the textile industry for its fineness [9]. For fiber producers, the primary objective is often reducing mean fiber diameter while maintaining or increasing fleece weight. For llama breeders, objectives may focus on conformation, pack ability, or guard animal traits. Write down your breeding objectives and review them annually. Objectives should include target values for fiber diameter, fleece weight, staple length, and comfort factor. The comfort factor represents the percentage of fibers below 30 microns, which determines whether the fiber is suitable for next-to-skin wear [9]. For Huacaya alpacas, breeders typically aim for mean fiber diameter below 23 microns in yearlings, with a comfort factor above 85 percent. Consider the tradeoffs between different traits. Selecting aggressively for fineness may reduce fleece weight or body size. Selecting for color uniformity may limit your genetic pool. Prioritize two to three traits per generation instead of attempting to improve all traits simultaneously. ## Understanding Heritability and Selection Response Heritability estimates help predict how much improvement you can expect from selection. Fiber traits in alpacas and llamas generally have moderate to high heritability, meaning that selecting superior animals will produce measurable improvement in their offspring. The heritability of fiber diameter is typically higher than the heritability of fleece weight or staple length. Selection response depends on three factors: the heritability of the trait, the selection differential (how much better the selected parents are than the herd average), and the generation interval. A larger selection differential produces faster genetic progress. Using only the top 10 percent of animals as parents will produce more rapid improvement than using the top 30 percent. Generation interval in alpacas and llamas is typically three to five years. Females can produce their first cria at two to three years of age, and males can begin breeding at two to three years. Shorter generation intervals accelerate genetic progress but require careful management to avoid excessive inbreeding. ## Pedigree Management and Record Keeping Accurate pedigree records are essential for genetic selection and inbreeding control. Each animal should have a unique identification number, preferably a microchip or tattoo that is permanently readable. Record the sire and dam for every cria born in your herd. Maintain a herd record system that includes for each animal: - Identification number and registration status - Date of birth and sex - Sire and dam identification - Birth weight and birth type (single or twin) - Weaning weight and date - Shearing dates and fleece weights - Fiber test results (mean diameter, standard deviation, comfort factor, staple length) - Body condition scores at each handling - Breeding dates and outcomes - Health treatments and vaccinations - Culling or sale date and reason Pedigree records should cover a minimum of three generations to calculate accurate inbreeding coefficients. The history of farm Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR) spans about 12 to 14 thousand years, beginning with domestication of animals for companion, food, fur, and hide purposes [8]. Modern alpaca and llama populations have been developed through centuries of selection, and maintaining accurate pedigrees preserves this genetic heritage. ## Applying Selection Pressure Selection pressure refers to the proportion of animals that are allowed to reproduce. Higher selection pressure means fewer animals become parents, which accelerates genetic improvement but reduces population size and increases inbreeding risk. For a herd of 20 breeding females, you might retain only two to three males for breeding each year. Select males based on their own performance (fiber test results, conformation) and the performance of their dams and sisters. For females, retain the top 60 to 70 percent based on fiber quality, conformation, and reproductive soundness. Culling decisions should be made annually after shearing and fiber testing. Remove animals that: - Have mean fiber diameter above your target threshold - Show poor conformation or structural unsoundness - Have chronic health problems or poor body condition - Fail to conceive after two breeding seasons - Produce offspring with congenital defects - Have aggressive or dangerous temperament ## Inbreeding Control and Genetic Diversity Inbreeding reduces genetic diversity and increases the risk of congenital defects. Research on genetic diversity in alpacas has examined whether inbreeding can explain the prevalence of congenital defects in the species [10]. Maintaining genetic diversity is critical for long-term herd health and productivity. Calculate inbreeding coefficients for planned matings before breeding. A coefficient of 6.25 percent (equivalent to a first-cousin mating) is generally considered the maximum acceptable level for most camelid breeders. Higher coefficients increase the risk of inbreeding depression, which can manifest as reduced fertility, lower birth weights, slower growth rates, and increased incidence of congenital abnormalities. To control inbreeding: - Maintain a minimum of three to four unrelated breeding males - Rotate males every two to three years - Import new genetics from unrelated herds every three to five years - Use AI or transported semen to access distant genetics - Keep detailed pedigree records for all animals - Calculate inbreeding coefficients before each mating The world possesses more than eight thousand livestock and poultry breeds, evolved from only a few founder populations and catering to various needs of human society around the world [8]. Alpacas and llamas represent region-specific species that have developed distinct breed characteristics through centuries of selection. Preserving genetic diversity within these populations is essential for their long-term viability. ## Fiber Quality Assessment and Selection Fiber quality is the primary economic trait for most alpaca breeders. Fiber fineness is determined by mean fiber diameter, measured in microns. Alpaca fiber is valued by the textile industry for its fineness, and its valuation is determined by fineness among other variables [9]. Fiber testing should be performed annually on all animals over 12 months of age. Use an Optical-based Fibre Diameter Analyser (OFDA) or similar certified testing laboratory. The OFDA equipment can determine average fiber diameter, length, and comfort factor [9]. These measurements provide objective data for selection decisions. Key fiber traits to measure and record: - Mean fiber diameter (microns) - Standard deviation of fiber diameter - Coefficient of variation of fiber diameter - Comfort factor (percentage of fibers below 30 microns) - Staple length (millimeters) - Fleece weight (kilograms) - Medullation percentage (presence of hollow fibers) Fiber characteristics are influenced by sex, age, color of the fleece, and body region [9]. Younger animals typically produce finer fiber, and fiber diameter increases with age. When comparing animals for selection, compare animals of the same age group. Yearling fiber test results are the most useful for early selection decisions. ## Conformation and Structural Soundness Conformation affects longevity, reproductive performance, and overall health. Evaluate conformation at weaning, at yearling age, and before each breeding season. Structural faults can be inherited and should be considered in selection decisions. Assess the following conformational traits: - Leg structure: front legs should be straight with no bowing or knock-knees. Rear legs should have proper angulation at the hock. - Feet: toes should point forward with no splaying. Hoof walls should be even and properly trimmed. - Back: the topline should be level with no roaching or swaying. - Neck: should be well set on the shoulders with proper length. - Head: bite should be correct with no overbite or underbite. Eyes should be clear and bright. - Body condition: animals should maintain appropriate body condition without excessive fat or emaciation. Cull animals with severe conformational faults that affect soundness or quality of life. Minor faults may be acceptable if the animal excels in other traits, but avoid breeding animals with the same fault repeatedly. ## Replacement Decisions and Culling Criteria Replacement decisions determine the genetic direction of your herd. Develop written criteria for which animals are retained as replacements and which are culled. Review these criteria annually and adjust based on your breeding objectives. For female replacements: - Retain from dams with consistent fiber quality and good reproductive history - Select for mean fiber diameter below herd average - Require sound conformation and good body condition - Consider temperament and ease of handling - Retain only if they conceive within two breeding seasons For male replacements: - Select from top-performing dams and sires - Require fiber test results in the top 20 percent of the herd - Require excellent conformation with no structural faults - Consider progeny test results if available - Limit to one male per 15 to 20 breeding females Culling criteria should include: - Animals that fail to meet fiber quality standards after two shearings - Females that fail to conceive after two breeding seasons - Animals with chronic health problems - Animals with congenital defects - Animals with dangerous temperament - Animals over 10 to 12 years of age with declining condition ## Records and Measurements for Genetic Improvement Systematic record keeping is the foundation of genetic improvement. Without accurate records, selection decisions are based on memory and impression instead of objective data. Essential records for genetic selection: - Individual animal identification and pedigree - Birth date, birth weight, and birth type - Weaning weight and date - Shearing dates and fleece weights - Fiber test results with lab report numbers - Body condition scores at each handling - Breeding dates and outcomes - Health treatments and vaccination dates - Culling or sale date and reason - Inbreeding coefficients for planned matings Use a spreadsheet or herd management software to track these records. Calculate herd averages for key traits each year and compare individual animals to these averages. Identify trends over time to assess whether your selection program is producing the desired results. ## Common Failure Patterns in Genetic Selection Breeders commonly make several mistakes that slow genetic progress or create long-term problems. Selecting on a single trait without considering correlated responses. Aggressive selection for fiber fineness may reduce fleece weight, body size, or fertility. Monitor multiple traits and maintain balance in your selection program. Using too few breeding males. A single male can create a genetic bottleneck that takes generations to correct. Maintain multiple unrelated males and rotate them regularly. Ignoring inbreeding. Without pedigree records and inbreeding calculations, breeders may unknowingly mate related animals. Calculate inbreeding coefficients for all planned matings. Culling too slowly. Retaining mediocre animals as breeders slows genetic progress. Apply consistent culling criteria and remove animals that do not meet standards. Failing to import new genetics. Closed herds lose genetic diversity over time. Introduce new bloodlines every three to five years to maintain diversity and avoid inbreeding depression. Selecting based on visual appraisal alone without fiber testing. Visual assessment of fleece quality is unreliable. Use objective fiber test data for all selection decisions. ## Limitations and Professional Escalation Genetic selection has inherent limitations that breeders must recognize. Heritability estimates are population-specific and may not apply to your herd. Environmental factors such as nutrition, management, and climate affect trait expression and can mask genetic potential. Professional escalation is warranted when: - You observe an increase in congenital defects or stillbirths in your herd - Inbreeding coefficients exceed 6.25 percent in multiple matings - You cannot identify the sire or dam of cria due to poor records - You need assistance calculating inbreeding coefficients or designing a breeding plan - You suspect a genetic disorder that requires veterinary diagnosis - You want to access advanced reproductive technologies such as AI or embryo transfer Consult with a veterinarian who has experience with camelids for health-related genetic concerns. Contact breed associations for guidance on breed standards and registration requirements. The USDA Agricultural Research Service provides resources on animal production and protection that may be relevant to genetic improvement programs [6]. The FAO Animal Production and Health division offers information on sustainable livestock production and genetic resource management [4]. ## Welfare and Safety Context Genetic selection affects animal welfare in several ways. Selecting for extreme traits can create health problems. For example, selecting for extremely fine fiber may produce animals with reduced cold tolerance. Selecting for large body size may increase the risk of dystocia (difficult birth). Monitor your herd for welfare indicators: - Body condition scores should remain within healthy range - Animals should move freely with no signs of lameness - Fiber coverage should be adequate for climate conditions - Reproductive problems should be investigated promptly - Congenital defects should be reported to your veterinarian Worker safety is relevant when handling breeding males. Intact males can be aggressive, especially during breeding season. Use proper handling facilities and never turn your back on a breeding male. Cull animals with dangerous temperament regardless of their genetic merit. The Animal Health and Welfare resources from the USDA National Agricultural Library provide information on welfare standards and best practices for livestock operations [5]. The Merck Veterinary Manual offers management and nutrition guidance that supports genetic selection programs [3]. ## Practical Decision Framework: Balancing Selection Intensity with Herd Viability Genetic selection decisions require a structured approach that balances short-term gains against long-term herd health. The following framework provides breeders with a repeatable process for making selection decisions that maintain genetic diversity while achieving measurable improvement in target traits. ### Step 1: Establish Baseline Herd Metrics Before making any selection decisions, calculate your current herd averages for key traits. Record mean fiber diameter, standard deviation, comfort factor, staple length, and fleece weight for all animals over 12 months of age. Calculate the average inbreeding coefficient for your herd using pedigree records covering at least three generations. The FAO Domestic Animal Diversity Information System provides guidance on genetic resource management that supports baseline assessment [1]. Compare your herd averages to breed standards and your own breeding objectives. If your herd mean fiber diameter is 26 microns and your objective is 22 microns, you need to calculate how many generations of selection will be required to reach that target. A realistic improvement rate for fiber diameter is 0.5 to 1.0 micron per generation with consistent selection pressure. ### Step 2: Classify Animals into Selection Tiers Divide your herd into three tiers based on objective measurements and visual appraisal. Tier 1 animals are those that rank in the top 20 percent for your primary selection trait and have no disqualifying faults. Tier 2 animals rank in the 20 to 50 percent range or have minor faults that do not affect soundness. Tier 3 animals rank below 50 percent or have significant faults that warrant culling. For a herd of 30 breeding females, Tier 1 might include 6 animals, Tier 2 includes 9 animals, and Tier 3 includes 15 animals. Only Tier 1 animals should be considered as potential parents for replacement stock. Tier 2 animals may be retained for production but should not produce replacements. Tier 3 animals should be culled or sold. ### Step 3: Calculate Selection Differential The selection differential is the difference between the average performance of selected parents and the average performance of the entire herd. For example, if your herd average fiber diameter is 24 microns and your selected Tier 1 females average 21 microns, the selection differential is 3 microns. Multiply this by the heritability estimate for fiber diameter (typically 0.4 to 0.6) to predict the expected improvement in offspring. A 3-micron selection differential with 0.5 heritability predicts 1.5 microns of improvement in the next generation. Record your selection differential each year and compare it to previous years. If the differential is decreasing, you may be approaching a plateau in genetic potential or you may need to import new genetics. The USDA Agricultural Research Service provides resources on animal production that include selection methodology guidance [6]. ### Step 4: Evaluate Mating Compatibility Before finalizing any mating, calculate the inbreeding coefficient for the proposed pairing. Use pedigree records to identify common ancestors in the sire and dam lines. A coefficient of 6.25 percent or higher indicates a mating that should be avoided in most breeding programs. Research on genetic diversity in alpacas has examined whether inbreeding can explain the prevalence of congenital defects in the species [10]. Create a mating matrix that lists all potential sires and dams with their inbreeding coefficients. For each proposed mating, record the coefficient and flag any pairing that exceeds your threshold. Maintain a minimum of three to four unrelated breeding males to provide mating options that avoid excessive inbreeding. ### Step 5: Apply Replacement Pressure Replacement decisions should follow a consistent annual schedule. After shearing and fiber testing, review all yearlings and select replacements before the breeding season begins. For a herd of 20 breeding females, retain 4 to 6 female replacements and 1 to 2 male replacements each year. This replacement rate of 20 to 30 percent maintains herd size while allowing genetic improvement. Cull animals that fail to meet your criteria immediately instead of carrying them through another year. Common culling triggers include mean fiber diameter above your target threshold for two consecutive shearings, failure to conceive after two breeding seasons, structural unsoundness that affects mobility, and chronic health problems that require ongoing treatment. ### Step 6: Monitor Genetic Trends Track genetic trends over time using a simple spreadsheet or herd management software. Calculate the herd average for each key trait every year and plot the values on a graph. A downward trend in fiber diameter indicates successful selection. A flat or upward trend suggests that selection pressure is insufficient or that environmental factors are masking genetic gains. Also monitor inbreeding trends. Calculate the average inbreeding coefficient for all cria born each year. If this average is increasing, you need to introduce new genetics or adjust your mating strategy. The FAO Animal Production and Health division offers information on sustainable livestock production and genetic resource management that supports trend monitoring [4]. ### Common Failure Patterns in This Framework Breeders commonly make several mistakes when applying this decision framework. The most frequent failure is applying inconsistent selection pressure from year to year. If you cull aggressively one year but retain marginal animals the next, genetic progress slows or reverses. Apply the same criteria every year regardless of how many animals meet the standard. Another common failure is selecting sires based on visual appraisal alone without fiber test data. Visual assessment of fleece quality is unreliable and can lead to selecting animals with average or below-average fiber diameter. Always use objective fiber test data for all selection decisions, particularly for males that will have a large genetic impact on the herd. A third failure pattern is ignoring the relationship between selection intensity and inbreeding risk. Using only one or two males as sires each year creates a genetic bottleneck that takes generations to correct. Maintain multiple unrelated males and rotate them regularly to preserve genetic diversity. ### Records and Measurements for This Framework Maintain a selection decision log that records for each breeding season: - Herd averages for all measured traits - Selection differential for each trait - Number of animals in each selection tier - Inbreeding coefficients for all planned matings - Number of replacements retained and culled - Expected genetic improvement based on selection differential and heritability Review this log annually before the breeding season to assess whether your selection program is on track. If actual improvement falls short of expected improvement, investigate possible causes such as inaccurate heritability estimates, environmental effects masking genetic potential, or errors in measurement or record keeping. ### Limitations and Professional Escalation This decision framework assumes accurate pedigree records and reliable fiber test data. If your records are incomplete or your fiber testing is inconsistent, the framework will produce unreliable results. Invest in proper identification and record keeping before implementing a structured selection program. Professional escalation is warranted when: - You observe an increase in congenital defects or stillbirths despite following the framework - Inbreeding coefficients continue to rise even with multiple sires and regular genetic imports - You cannot achieve the expected genetic improvement after three generations of consistent selection - You need assistance calculating selection differentials or designing a selection index - You suspect that environmental factors are masking genetic potential and need diagnostic testing Consult with a veterinarian who has experience with camelids for health-related genetic concerns. The Merck Veterinary Manual offers management and nutrition guidance that supports genetic selection programs [3]. Contact breed associations for guidance on breed standards and registration requirements that may affect your selection decisions. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### How do I calculate inbreeding coefficients for my alpacas or llamas? Inbreeding coefficients require pedigree records for at least three generations. Use a spreadsheet or dedicated software that calculates coefficients based on common ancestors in the sire and dam pedigrees. The coefficient represents the probability that two alleles at a given locus are identical by descent. A coefficient of 6.25 percent or higher indicates a mating that should be avoided in most breeding programs. ### What is the minimum number of breeding males I should maintain? Maintain a minimum of three to four unrelated breeding males for a herd of 20 to 30 breeding females. Rotate males every two to three years to avoid overuse of any single male. If you have fewer than three males, import new genetics from unrelated herds every two to three years. ### How often should I fiber test my animals? Test all animals annually after their first yearling shearing. Continue annual testing for breeding animals to track changes in fiber quality with age. Yearling test results are most useful for early selection decisions. Test results from multiple years allow you to assess the rate of fiber diameter increase with age. ### Can I select for multiple traits at the same time? Yes, but prioritize two to three traits per generation. Selecting for too many traits simultaneously reduces progress in any single trait. Use a selection index that weights each trait according to its economic importance. For fiber producers, fiber diameter and fleece weight are typically the highest priority traits. ### How do I know if my herd has an inbreeding problem? Signs of inbreeding depression include reduced fertility, smaller birth weights, slower growth rates, increased incidence of congenital defects, and reduced disease resistance. Calculate inbreeding coefficients for your herd and identify any matings with coefficients above 6.25 percent. If you see multiple signs of inbreeding depression, import new genetics immediately. ### What records are essential for genetic selection? Essential records include individual identification, pedigree (sire and dam), birth date, fiber test results (mean diameter, standard deviation, comfort factor, staple length), fleece weight, body condition scores, breeding dates and outcomes, and culling reasons. Without these records, selection decisions cannot be objective. ### How long does it take to see genetic improvement in fiber quality? Genetic improvement is cumulative and slow. You may see measurable improvement in fiber diameter within two to three generations (six to fifteen years) with consistent selection pressure. The rate of improvement depends on heritability of the trait, selection differential, and generation interval. Fiber diameter typically responds faster than fleece weight. ### Should I cull animals with minor conformational faults? Minor faults may be acceptable if the animal excels in fiber quality and other traits. Avoid breeding two animals with the same fault. Cull animals with severe faults that affect soundness, longevity, or quality of life. Structural unsoundness that causes lameness or difficulty moving is grounds for immediate culling regardless of other traits. ## Related Farming Guides - [Queen Breeding Business Genetics Mating And Sales](/knowledge/animal-farming/apiculture/queen-breeding-business-genetics-mating-and-sales) - [Farm Breeding Record System Design](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/farm-breeding-record-system-design) - [Pasture Management For Sheep](/knowledge/animal-farming/sheep/pasture-management-for-sheep) - [Livestock Waste Management Composting Anaerobic Digestion Nutrient Recovery](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/livestock-waste-management-composting-anaerobic-digestion-nutrient-recovery) - [Poultry Genetics And Breeding Selection Strategies For Production Traits](/knowledge/animal-farming/poultry/poultry-genetics-and-breeding-selection-strategies-for-production-traits) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Water Buffalo Genetic Improvement and Breeding Programs](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/water-buffalo-genetic-improvement-breeding-programs) * [Camel Farm Biosecurity: Disease Prevention and Quarantine Protocols](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/camel-farm-biosecurity-disease-prevention-quarantine-protocols) * [Water Buffalo Farm Equipment and Infrastructure](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/water-buffalo-farm-equipment-infrastructure) ## References and Further Reading - [www.fao.org](https://www.fao.org/dad-is) - [www.ars.usda.gov](https://www.ars.usda.gov/) - [www.merckvetmanual.com](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition) - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. - [Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). USDA National Agricultural Library. - [Animal Production and Protection](https://www.ars.usda.gov/animal-production-and-protection). USDA Agricultural Research Service. - [Animal and Veterinary Resources](https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. - [Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR) Diversity in India](https://doi.org/10.5958/0976-1926.2022.00073.0). Indian Journal of Plant Genetic Resources, 2022. - [Lanametric Determination of the Alpaca Fiber (Vicugna Pacos) in Tucayta, Province of Cañar](https://doi.org/10.13188/2325-4645.1000042). Journal of [Veterinary Science](/blog/news/veterinary-science) & Medicine, 2019. - [Genetic diversity in alpacas : can inbreeding explain the prevalence of congenital defects?](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/d81b49c67b322746ffbe7a1b16c057148dd19b6e). 2011. - [Fiber production in South American camelids. Advances in processing and breeding.](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/433e326fdee1a6e02d59080999ba921bf6efcbb2). 2011. - [Advances in Fibre Production Science in South American Camelids and other Fibre Animals](https://doi.org/10.17875/GUP2019-1158). 2019. - [TUCUMAN BIOLOGY ASSOCIATION](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/40f873264cbf05fa1dd6b93b21c197b43ca5ef31). 2012. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.