Cat Scratch Fever: Cat Health, Flea Control, and Human Risk

Cat scratch fever, also called cat scratch disease (CSD), is a bacterial infection caused primarily by Bartonella henselae. Cats are the natural reservoir for this bacterium, and humans typically acquire the infection through a cat scratch, bite, or contact with flea feces. The disease is preventable, and the most effective strategy is consistent flea control in cats. This article provides a One Health perspective, separating veterinary guidance from human medical advice, to help pet owners understand the risks, recognize signs of illness, and take appropriate action. If you have been scratched or bitten by a cat and develop a wound that looks infected, or if you have a fever and swollen lymph nodes, contact your physician promptly. For your cat, prioritize year-round flea prevention and consult your veterinarian for a tailored parasite control plan.

At a Glance: Key Differences Between Human and Cat Infection

| Feature | Human (Cat Scratch Disease) | Cat (Bartonellosis) | | :-, | :-, | :-, | | Primary Symptom | Swollen, tender lymph node near the scratch or bite site. | Often asymptomatic. May show fever, lethargy, or eye inflammation. | | Cause | Bartonella henselae introduced through a scratch, bite, or flea feces. | Bartonella henselae transmitted by infected flea feces. | | Diagnosis | Clinical history, serology (blood test for antibodies). | PCR (polymerase chain reaction) on blood or tissue; serology has limited value in individual diagnosis. | | Treatment | Supportive care; antibiotics may be prescribed by a physician for severe cases. | Antibiotics are rarely needed for healthy cats; treatment is controversial and not routinely recommended. | | Prevention | Avoid rough play with cats; wash scratches and bites immediately; flea control on cats. | Year-round, veterinary-approved flea control products. |

Understanding Cat Scratch Fever: A One Health Perspective

Cat scratch fever is a classic example of a zoonotic disease that links human health, animal health, and the environment. The bacterium Bartonella henselae circulates between cats and their fleas. Humans are accidental hosts, usually infected when a cat licks an open wound, scratches, or bites. The disease is not transmitted from person to person. The One Health approach emphasizes that controlling the infection in the cat population, primarily through flea management, is the most effective way to protect human health.

The Bacterium: Bartonella henselae

Bartonella henselae is a fastidious, Gram-negative bacterium. It is an emerging zoonotic pathogen with a worldwide distribution [1]. Cats are the primary reservoir, meaning they can carry the bacteria in their blood for months or years without showing signs of illness [19]. The bacterium is transmitted between cats by the cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis [1]. Fleas become infected after feeding on a bacteremic cat. The bacteria then replicate in the flea's gut and are shed in the flea's feces [20]. Transmission to a new cat (or human) occurs when infected flea feces are inoculated into the skin through a scratch or bite, or when the feces contaminate a wound [20].

The Vector: The Cat Flea (Ctenocephalides felis)

The cat flea is the central vector for B. henselae. Studies have shown a strong link between flea infestation and the presence of Bartonella infection in cats [3][6][12]. In one study, cats carrying fleas were more than twice as likely to be infected with Bartonella [3]. Another study found that 86% of fleas collected from stray cats in an urban area were positive for Bartonella DNA [5]. This highlights the critical role of the flea in maintaining the infection cycle. Effective flea control is therefore the single most important preventive measure for both cat and human health.

Cat Health: Feline Bartonellosis

Most cats infected with Bartonella henselae show no clinical signs. They are considered healthy carriers. However, infection can occasionally cause disease, particularly in young kittens or cats with other health problems.

How Cats Get Infected

Cats become infected primarily through the feces of infected fleas. When a flea bites a cat, it defecates. The cat may then ingest the flea feces while grooming, or the feces can enter the skin through a scratch. Kittens are more likely to become infected than adult cats, likely due to their less mature immune systems and higher likelihood of flea exposure [3][16]. Maternal antibodies can provide some protection against the same strain of B. henselae but may not protect against different strains [13].

Signs of Illness in Cats

When clinical signs do occur, they can be vague and non-specific. The most commonly reported signs include:

• Fever
• Lethargy
• Loss of appetite
• Swollen lymph nodes (lymphadenopathy)
• Gingivitis or stomatitis (inflammation of the mouth)
• Eye inflammation (uveitis)

In rare cases, B. henselae has been associated with more serious conditions such as endocarditis (inflammation of the heart lining) and neurological signs, though a direct cause-and-effect relationship is difficult to prove [8][19]. One study found no difference in B. henselae seroprevalence between cats with and without neurological disease, suggesting that a positive antibody test does not confirm the bacterium as the cause of neurological signs [8].

Risk Factors for Infection in Cats

Several factors increase a cat's risk of Bartonella infection. These are directly related to flea exposure:

• Age: Cats under one year of age are at higher risk [3][16].
• Flea Infestation: Cats with fleas are significantly more likely to be infected [3][6][12].
• Outdoor Access: Cats allowed outdoors have a higher risk of exposure to fleas and other cats [3][6].
• Inconsistent Flea Control: Cats that do not receive regular, year-round flea prevention are at much higher risk [3][16]. One study found that cats with inconsistent flea control were over six times more likely to be infected [3].
• Living in Multi-Cat Households or Shelters: These environments can facilitate the spread of fleas and the bacterium [12][16].

Veterinary Diagnosis

Diagnosing Bartonella infection in a cat can be challenging. The bacterium is difficult to culture. The most common diagnostic methods include:

• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): This test detects the DNA of Bartonella in a blood sample. It is more sensitive than culture and is the preferred method for confirming active infection [19].
• Serology (Antibody Testing): This test detects antibodies against B. henselae in the blood. A positive result indicates exposure to the bacterium, but it does not confirm an active infection. Many healthy cats in endemic areas will have positive antibody tests. The test is more useful for ruling out infection (a negative test has good predictive value) than for confirming it as the cause of illness [19].

Veterinary Management and Treatment

For the vast majority of healthy cats, no treatment is necessary. The infection is self-limiting, and the cat's immune system will eventually clear the bacteria. Treatment with antibiotics is controversial and is generally reserved for cats that are showing clinical signs of disease. The decision to treat should be made by a veterinarian based on the individual case. This article does not advise on specific antibiotic regimens. If your cat is diagnosed with bartonellosis and is ill, your veterinarian will discuss the best course of action.

Flea Control: The Cornerstone of Prevention

The most effective way to protect both your cat and your family from cat scratch fever is through rigorous, year-round flea control.

Why Flea Control is Essential

Bartonella henselae is transmitted by fleas. If you prevent fleas, you break the transmission cycle. Studies have consistently shown that cats receiving regular flea prevention are significantly less likely to be infected with Bartonella [3][15][16]. One study demonstrated that a topical flea prevention product (selamectin) was effective in preventing the transmission of B. henselae from infected fleas to cats [4].

Choosing a Flea Control Product

There are many safe and effective flea control products available. They come in various forms, including:

• Topical Spot-On Treatments: Applied to the skin on the back of the neck. Many are effective for a month.
• Oral Tablets: Given by mouth, often monthly.
• Collars: Some collars provide long-lasting protection (e.g., 8 months).

Your veterinarian is the best source of advice on which product is right for your cat, considering its age, weight, health status, and lifestyle. Never use a dog flea product on a cat, as some contain permethrin, which is highly toxic to cats.

Key Principles of Effective Flea Control

1. Year-Round Treatment: Fleas can survive indoors even in cold climates. Consistent, year-round prevention is essential to break the flea life cycle.
2. Treat All Pets in the Household: All dogs and cats in the home should be on a flea prevention program. A single untreated pet can act as a reservoir for fleas.
3. Environmental Control: In cases of heavy infestation, treating the home environment (vacuuming, washing pet bedding, and possibly using an environmental insecticide) is necessary.
4. Consult Your Veterinarian: Do not use over-the-counter products without veterinary guidance. Some are less effective or can be unsafe.

Human Risk: Cat Scratch Disease

Cat scratch disease (CSD) is the human illness caused by Bartonella henselae. It is a generally mild, self-limiting disease in healthy people, but it can cause serious complications in immunocompromised individuals.

How Humans Get Infected

Infection occurs when the bacterium enters the body through a break in the skin. The most common routes are:

• A scratch or bite from an infected cat.
• A cat licking an open wound, cut, or scrape.
• Contact with infected flea feces, which can be introduced into the skin through a scratch.

Kittens under one year of age are more likely to be infected with B. henselae and are also more likely to scratch and bite during play, making them a higher risk source of infection [11][16].

Signs of Illness in Humans

The classic sign of CSD is a swollen, painful lymph node (lymphadenopathy) near the site of the scratch or bite. This typically develops one to three weeks after the exposure. Other common symptoms include:

• A small bump or blister at the scratch site (an inoculation papule)
• Fever
• Fatigue
• Headache
• Poor appetite

In most healthy people, the infection resolves on its own within two to four months without specific treatment.

When to Contact a Physician

You should contact your physician if:

• You have a cat scratch or bite that becomes red, swollen, or painful (signs of infection).
• You develop a fever, especially with swollen lymph nodes, after being scratched or bitten by a cat.
• You have a weakened immune system (e.g., from HIV, organ transplant, chemotherapy) and have been scratched or bitten by a cat.
• The swollen lymph node is very large, painful, or does not go away after several weeks.

Prevention for Humans

Prevention focuses on avoiding exposure to the bacterium:

• Avoid Rough Play: Do not allow cats, especially kittens, to play roughly with your hands. Use toys instead.
• Wash Wounds Immediately: If you are scratched or bitten, wash the area thoroughly with soap and running water for at least 15 seconds.
• Control Fleas: This is the most important step for the entire household.
• Keep Cats Indoors: Indoor cats have a much lower risk of flea infestation and infection.
• Practice Good Hygiene: Wash your hands after handling your cat, especially before eating.
• Do Not Stray Cats: Avoid handling or interacting with stray or feral cats, as their health and flea status are unknown.

Special Considerations for High-Risk Individuals

People with compromised immune systems are at risk for more severe forms of Bartonella infection, such as bacillary angiomatosis (a condition causing skin lesions) or peliosis hepatis (a liver condition). These individuals should take extra precautions, including avoiding contact with kittens and any cat with fleas. If they own a cat, it must be on a strict, year-round flea control program.

Clinical Reasoning and Diagnostic Workup in Suspected Feline Bartonellosis

When a cat presents with signs that raise suspicion for bartonellosis, the veterinary clinician must navigate a diagnostic pathway that accounts for the bacterium’s fastidious nature and the high background seroprevalence in many cat populations. The clinical reasoning process begins with a thorough history that specifically probes for flea exposure, outdoor access, and the presence of other cats in the household. Owners should be prepared to report whether they have observed fleas or flea dirt on their cat, whether any flea prevention product has been used and with what consistency, and whether the cat has had any recent fights or wounds. This history is critical because the clinical signs of feline bartonellosis are non-specific and overlap with many other febrile or inflammatory conditions [19].

The physical examination should include careful palpation of all peripheral lymph node chains, including the submandibular, prescapular, axillary, inguinal, and popliteal nodes. Lymphadenopathy, when present, may be subtle and easily overlooked in a fractious or obese cat. The oral cavity warrants close inspection for gingivitis, stomatitis, or lymphoplasmacytic lesions, as oral inflammation has been associated with Bartonella infection in some studies. Ophthalmic examination is equally important; uveitis, chorioretinitis, or optic neuritis may be the only presenting sign in a subset of infected cats [19]. The clinician should also auscult the heart carefully for murmurs that might suggest endocarditis, although this complication is rare [8].

The diagnostic workup typically begins with a minimum database including a complete blood count, serum biochemistry profile, and urinalysis. Hematologic abnormalities in bartonellosis are inconsistent but may include mild anemia, eosinophilia, or thrombocytopenia. Biochemistry changes are similarly non-specific. These tests serve primarily to rule out other common causes of fever and lethargy, such as feline leukemia virus, feline immunodeficiency virus, toxoplasmosis, or bacterial infections from other sources. If the minimum database is unremarkable or shows only mild changes, the clinician must decide whether to pursue specific testing for Bartonella.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing on whole blood is the preferred method for confirming active infection, as it detects bacterial DNA directly [19]. However, the sensitivity of blood PCR is not 100 percent; bacteremia can be intermittent, and a single negative PCR result does not definitively rule out infection. In cats with strong clinical suspicion and negative blood PCR, some clinicians may consider testing on other sample types, such as lymph node aspirates or aqueous humor in cases of uveitis, though these approaches are less standardized. Serology, or antibody testing, has limited value in individual diagnosis because a positive result only indicates past or current exposure, not active disease. Many healthy cats in endemic areas have positive antibody titers, and a positive test does not confirm that Bartonella is the cause of the cat’s current illness [19]. Conversely, a negative antibody test has good negative predictive value and can help rule out infection as a cause of the cat’s signs.

Owners should understand that the decision to test for Bartonella is not always straightforward. In a cat with mild, self-limiting signs and a clear history of flea infestation, the clinician may opt for flea control and supportive care without testing, reserving diagnostic testing for cats with persistent or severe signs. The cost of PCR testing and the potential for false negatives are practical considerations that should be discussed with the owner. If testing is pursued, the owner should be counseled that a positive PCR result confirms infection but does not guarantee that treatment will be necessary or beneficial, as most healthy cats clear the infection on their own [19].

Evidence Limitations and Diagnostic Challenges

The veterinary literature on feline bartonellosis contains important limitations that clinicians and owners should recognize. Many studies rely on serology rather than PCR or culture to determine infection status, which can overestimate the prevalence of active infection because antibodies persist long after the bacterium has been cleared [19]. Studies that use PCR on convenience samples, such as shelter cats or stray populations, may not be representative of the general pet cat population. Furthermore, the association between Bartonella infection and specific clinical signs remains an area of active investigation. While some studies have found a higher prevalence of Bartonella antibodies in cats with stomatitis or uveitis, a causal relationship has not been firmly established, and many cats with these conditions test negative for the bacterium [19].

The diagnosis of Bartonella as a cause of neurological signs in cats is particularly challenging. One study found no difference in seroprevalence between cats with and without neurological disease, suggesting that a positive antibody test does not confirm the bacterium as the cause of neurological signs [8]. This highlights the danger of over-interpreting positive test results and the importance of a thorough diagnostic workup that excludes other potential causes. Owners should be aware that even with advanced testing, a definitive diagnosis of bartonellosis as the cause of their cat’s illness may not be possible, and treatment decisions must often be made on the basis of clinical judgment rather than absolute certainty.

Another evidence gap concerns the efficacy of antibiotic treatment in cats. Most studies on treatment have been small, uncontrolled, or conducted in experimental settings rather than in naturally infected cats presenting with clinical disease. The ABCD guidelines on Bartonella infection in cats note that treatment is controversial and not routinely recommended for healthy cats, as the infection is usually self-limiting [19]. For cats with clinical signs, the decision to treat must balance the potential benefits against the risks of antibiotic side effects, the development of antimicrobial resistance, and the cost to the owner. This article does not advise on specific antibiotic regimens, and owners should rely on their veterinarian’s recommendations based on the individual case.

Owner Observation and Preparation for a Veterinary Visit

Owners play a crucial role in the early detection of potential bartonellosis in their cats and in providing the information needed for an accurate diagnosis. Before the veterinary visit, owners should be encouraged to observe and document specific details about their cat’s behavior and physical condition. A written log of the cat’s appetite, water intake, activity level, and any changes in litter box habits over the preceding days to weeks can be invaluable. Owners should note whether the cat seems more lethargic than usual, whether it is hiding more frequently, and whether it shows any signs of pain or discomfort when being handled.

Specific observations that should prompt a veterinary visit include any swelling or lumps that can be felt under the jaw, in the armpits, or in the groin area. Owners can be taught to gently palpate these areas during routine petting sessions. Redness or discharge from the eyes, squinting, or a change in the appearance of the iris should also be noted. The owner should inspect the cat’s mouth for redness along the gum line, bad breath, or drooling, as these can be signs of stomatitis. Any fever detected at home, if the owner has a pet thermometer and is comfortable taking the cat’s temperature, should be recorded along with the time of day.

The owner should also prepare a complete history of flea prevention use, including the specific product name, the dose, the frequency of application, and whether any doses have been missed. If the owner has used over-the-counter flea products, they should bring the packaging or know the active ingredients. A history of any recent exposure to other cats, whether through outdoor access, boarding, or visits to a groomer or veterinary clinic, should be documented. If the cat has been scratched or bitten by another animal, the date and circumstances should be noted.

Owners should bring any previous medical records, including vaccination history and results of any prior blood tests. If the cat has been tested for feline leukemia virus or feline immunodeficiency virus, those results should be available. A list of all medications and supplements the cat is currently receiving, including dosages and frequencies, is essential. Finally, owners should prepare a list of questions for the veterinarian, focusing on the likelihood of bartonellosis, the recommended diagnostic tests, the expected costs, and the treatment options if the diagnosis is confirmed.

Prevention Strategies Beyond Flea Control

While year-round flea control is the cornerstone of prevention, a comprehensive approach to reducing the risk of Bartonella henselae infection in cats and their human companions includes several additional strategies. Environmental management plays a key role in breaking the flea life cycle. Owners should vacuum carpets, upholstery, and areas where the cat sleeps frequently, as vacuuming removes flea eggs and larvae and can reduce the flea population in the home. Washing cat bedding in hot water weekly kills flea eggs and larvae. In cases of heavy infestation, professional pest control may be necessary to treat the home environment, but owners should ensure that any products used are safe for cats.

Limiting a cat’s outdoor access is another effective preventive measure. Cats that are kept indoors have a significantly lower risk of flea infestation and, consequently, a lower risk of Bartonella infection [3][6]. For owners who wish to provide outdoor enrichment, supervised outdoor time in a secure enclosure or on a harness and leash can allow the cat to experience the outdoors without the risks associated with free-roaming. Indoor cats should still receive year-round flea prevention, as fleas can be brought into the home on clothing or shoes or by other pets that go outside.

In multi-cat households, all cats should be on the same flea prevention program. A single untreated cat can serve as a reservoir for fleas and maintain the transmission cycle within the household. New cats introduced into the household should be screened for fleas and, ideally, tested for Bartonella infection before being allowed to interact with resident cats. A quarantine period of several weeks, during which the new cat is kept separate and monitored for signs of illness, can reduce the risk of introducing infection.

Owners should also practice good hygiene when interacting with their cats. Hand washing after handling the cat, especially before eating or preparing food, reduces the risk of ingesting flea feces or other contaminants. Children should be taught to wash their hands after playing with the cat and to avoid rough play that could lead to scratches or bites. Keeping the cat’s nails trimmed can reduce the severity of scratches if they occur. Any scratch or bite, even a minor one, should be washed immediately with soap and running water for at least 15 seconds.

Prognosis and Long-Term Outlook for Infected Cats

The prognosis for cats infected with Bartonella henselae is generally excellent. The vast majority of infected cats remain asymptomatic or develop only mild, self-limiting signs that resolve without specific treatment [19]. The cat’s immune system typically clears the bacteremia over a period of weeks to months, although some cats may remain bacteremic for longer periods, particularly if they are re-exposed to infected fleas. Reinfection is possible, as immunity to one strain of B. henselae may not protect against other strains [13].

For cats that develop clinical signs, the prognosis depends on the severity and nature of those signs. Cats with mild lymphadenopathy, fever, and lethargy usually recover fully with supportive care, which may include rest, good nutrition, and ensuring adequate hydration. Cats with more severe manifestations, such as uveitis or stomatitis, may require specific treatment and may have a more guarded prognosis depending on the response to therapy. Uveitis, if not treated promptly, can lead to secondary glaucoma or cataract formation, which may affect vision. Stomatitis can be challenging to manage and may require long-term medical therapy or, in severe cases, dental extractions.

Endocarditis, while rare, is a serious complication that carries a guarded prognosis. It requires aggressive antibiotic therapy and intensive supportive care, and even with treatment, the mortality rate is significant [8][19]. Owners should be aware that the diagnosis of Bartonella endocarditis is difficult to confirm antemortem, and the condition may be underdiagnosed in cats. Any cat with a new or changing heart murmur, especially in the context of fever and lethargy, should be evaluated for endocarditis, and Bartonella should be considered as a potential cause.

Long-term monitoring for cats that have been diagnosed with bartonellosis is generally not necessary unless the cat had severe clinical signs or a complication such as uveitis or endocarditis. For these cats, regular veterinary check-ups to monitor for recurrence or long-term sequelae are advisable. Owners should continue year-round flea prevention indefinitely to prevent reinfection and to protect the cat and the household from other flea-borne diseases.

Special-Population Considerations

Certain populations of cats and humans require special consideration when it comes to Bartonella henselae infection. Kittens under one year of age are at higher risk of infection and are more likely to be bacteremic than adult cats [3][16]. They are also more likely to scratch and bite during play, making them a higher risk source of infection for humans. Owners with young children or immunocompromised individuals in the household should be particularly vigilant about flea control in kittens and should supervise interactions between kittens and vulnerable individuals. Adopting an adult cat rather than a kitten may reduce the risk of introducing a highly bacteremic animal into the household.

Immunocompromised individuals, including those with HIV/AIDS, organ transplant recipients, patients undergoing chemotherapy, and those on chronic immunosuppressive therapy, are at risk for severe and atypical forms of Bartonella infection. Bacillary angiomatosis, a condition characterized by vascular skin lesions, and peliosis hepatis, a condition involving blood-filled cavities in the liver, are rare but serious complications that occur almost exclusively in immunocompromised patients. These individuals should avoid contact with kittens and any cat with fleas. If they own a cat, it must be on a strict, year-round flea control program, and the cat should be kept indoors. Any scratch or bite should be washed immediately, and the individual should seek medical attention promptly if any signs of infection develop.

Pregnant women are not at increased risk for severe Bartonella infection, but the general precautions regarding flea control and hygiene should be followed. There is no evidence that B. henselae causes congenital infection or adverse pregnancy outcomes, but pregnant women should still avoid contact with flea-infested cats and practice good hand hygiene.

Veterinary personnel, including veterinarians, veterinary technicians, and kennel staff, are at increased risk of exposure to Bartonella due to their frequent contact with cats, including stray and shelter animals. One study found that veterinary personnel had a higher seroprevalence of Bartonella antibodies compared to the general population [9]. These individuals should use appropriate personal protective equipment, including gloves, when handling cats with unknown flea status, and should practice rigorous hand hygiene after each patient encounter. Occupational health programs should include education about zoonotic diseases, including cat scratch disease, and should encourage reporting of any scratches or bites sustained on the job.

Shelter cats represent a particularly high-risk population for Bartonella infection due to the high prevalence of flea infestation and the constant turnover of animals [12][16]. Shelters should implement routine flea control for all incoming cats and should educate adopters about the importance of continued flea prevention after adoption. Potential adopters who are immunocompromised or who live with young children should be counseled about the risks and should consider adopting an adult cat that has been on a consistent flea prevention program.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. Can I get cat scratch fever from a cat lick?

Yes, it is possible. The Bartonella henselae bacteria can be present in a cat's saliva. If a cat licks an open wound, cut, or scrape on your skin, the bacteria can enter your body and cause infection.

2. How long does cat scratch fever last in humans?

In most healthy people, cat scratch disease is self-limiting and resolves on its own within two to four months. The swollen lymph nodes may persist for several weeks. In rare cases, symptoms can last longer.

3. Is cat scratch fever contagious between people?

No, cat scratch fever is not contagious between people. It is a zoonotic disease that is transmitted from cats to humans, not from person to person.

4. My cat is an indoor cat. Does it need flea prevention?

Yes. Even indoor cats can get fleas. Fleas can be brought into the home on your clothing or shoes, or by other pets (like dogs) that go outside. Consistent, year-round flea prevention is the best way to protect your indoor cat and your family.

5. Can my cat die from cat scratch fever?

It is extremely rare for a healthy cat to die from Bartonella henselae infection. Most cats show no signs of illness. In very rare cases, the infection can cause severe disease like endocarditis, which can be life-threatening, but this is not common.

6. What should I do if my child is scratched by a cat?

Wash the scratch immediately and thoroughly with soap and water. Monitor the site for signs of infection, such as redness, swelling, or pain. If your child develops a fever or swollen lymph nodes in the weeks following the scratch, contact your pediatrician.

7. How is cat scratch disease diagnosed in humans?

A physician will typically diagnose CSD based on your history of cat contact, a physical exam, and blood tests that detect antibodies to Bartonella henselae. In some cases, a PCR test on a sample from the lymph node may be used.

8. What is the best way to prevent cat scratch fever?

The single most effective preventive measure is year-round, veterinary-approved flea control for your cat. This breaks the transmission cycle of the bacterium. Additionally, avoid rough play with cats, wash any scratches or bites immediately, and practice good hand hygiene.

Related Veterinary Guides

• Feline Flea Allergy Dermatitis: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment
• The Complete Guide to Feline Zoonotic Diseases
• Understanding and Managing Cat Bite Infections
• Parasite Prevention for Cats: A Year-Round Plan
• Kitten Care: The First Year

Disclaimer: This article is for educational purposes and is not a substitute for professional veterinary or medical diagnosis, advice, or treatment. Always seek the advice of your veterinarian or physician with any questions you may have regarding a health condition.

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[20] Foil L, Andress E, Freeland RL et al. Experimental infection of domestic cats with Bartonella henselae by inoculation of Ctenocephalides felis (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae) feces. J Med Entomol. 1998. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9775583/

[21] CDC: About Cat Scratch Disease. https://www.cdc.gov/bartonella/about/about-cat-scratch-disease.html

[22] CDC: Healthy Pets, Healthy People, Cats. https://www.cdc.gov/healthy-pets/about/cats.html