Surgical Biopsy Techniques: Incisional vs Excisional

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-08-11

Key Takeaways

• Incisional biopsy is indicated for large lesions, suspected malignancies requiring treatment planning, or when wide resection would be morbid, aiming for histopathologic diagnosis before definitive surgery.
• Excisional biopsy is appropriate for small lesions, suspected benign tumors, or when complete removal with acceptable margins is feasible, serving as both diagnosis and treatment in a single procedure.
• The biopsy tract is considered contaminated tissue and must be incorporated into the definitive resection specimen to prevent tumor seeding and compromise of subsequent surgical planes.
• Tissue handling is critical; samples must be placed immediately in 10% neutral buffered formalin (at least 10:1 ratio) and electrocautery avoided at the biopsy margin to prevent artifact and ensure diagnostic interpretability.
• Biopsy planning must consider lesion size, location, suspected biologic behavior, and functional consequences of resection, with a longitudinal biopsy tract on limbs preferred for easier incorporation into definitive wide excision.
• Communication between surgeon and pathologist, including detailed clinical history and lesion description, is essential for accurate margin assessment and interpretation of the histopathology report, especially for malignant neoplasms.

This article provides a procedural reference for veterinarians selecting between incisional and excisional biopsy approaches in surgical oncology. It addresses the decision framework, tissue handling principles, margin considerations, and technique-specific complications that influence diagnostic yield and therapeutic outcome. The content applies across species, with attention to anatomic and practical differences between small animal, equine, and food animal patients.

The central clinical question is straightforward: when does a biopsy serve purely diagnostic purposes, and when does it serve as definitive treatment? The answer depends on lesion size, suspected biologic behavior, anatomic location, and the consequences of incomplete resection. This reference equips the practitioner to make that determination before entering the operating room, to execute the chosen technique with attention to tissue artifact, and to interpret the pathology report in the context of surgical decision-making.

At a Glance

Biologic Principles Governing Biopsy Decisions

Tumor growth patterns determine whether a biopsy can be interpreted reliably and whether incomplete excision carries meaningful risk. Malignant mesenchymal tumors, such as soft tissue sarcomas, often exhibit a pseudocapsule of compressed tissue that does not represent a true surgical barrier. The periphery of these tumors contains microscopic extensions that are not visible grossly, which is why enucleation or marginal excision alone is associated with local recurrence. In contrast, many epithelial tumors remain confined by a basement membrane until late in their progression, making excisional biopsy with narrow margins a reasonable approach for small, well-circumscribed lesions.

The biologic behavior of the suspected tumor type should drive the biopsy plan. For lesions suspected to be benign, such as lipomas or mast cell tumors in dogs with low-grade cytologic features, excisional biopsy is often appropriate as the first step. For lesions suspected to be malignant with high metastatic potential, such as osteosarcoma or hemangiosarcoma, incisional biopsy provides a diagnosis that allows staging and neoadjuvant planning before definitive resection. The surgical management principles for osteosarcoma described in the orthopedic oncology literature emphasize that a well-placed biopsy reduces tissue contamination, which is a common reason for amputation in human patients. The same principle applies in veterinary patients: a poorly placed biopsy tract can compromise subsequent limb-sparing or wide resection.

Incisional Biopsy: Technique and Indications

Incisional biopsy removes a portion of the lesion for histopathologic examination while leaving the bulk of the mass in situ. This approach is indicated when the lesion is large, when resection would cause significant morbidity, when the diagnosis will change the surgical plan, or when the clinician suspects a tumor type that requires specific medical therapy before surgery. Examples include suspected lymphoma, plasma cell tumors, or round cell neoplasms where chemotherapy is the primary treatment and surgery is adjunctive or unnecessary.

Wedge Biopsy

A wedge biopsy is the most common incisional technique for cutaneous and subcutaneous masses. An elliptical incision is made through the full thickness of the lesion, extending into adjacent normal tissue at one margin. The sample should measure at least 1 cm in its greatest dimension and include the interface between tumor and normal tissue when feasible. This interface is diagnostically valuable because it allows the pathologist to assess invasion patterns and tumor border characteriztics. The biopsy tract must be oriented so that it can be incorporated into the definitive resection specimen later. A longitudinal incision along the long axis of a limb, for example, is easier to excise en bloc than a transverse incision.

Punch Biopsy

Punch biopsy instruments ranging from 4 to 8 mm in diameter are useful for small, superficial lesions or for sampling multiple sites within a large mass. The punch is advanced perpendicular to the skin surface to the depth of the subcutaneous fat, and the core is lifted with forceps and severed at its base with scissors. Crushing the specimen with forceps introduces artifact that can obscure cellular detail. Multiple punch samples from different regions of a heterogeneous mass improve diagnostic yield, particularly for tumors with necrotic or cystic areas.

Core Needle Biopsy

Core needle biopsy using Tru-Cut or similar devices is appropriate for deeper masses where surgical exposure is undesirable, such as intrathoracic or intra-abdominal lesions. Ultrasound guidance improves accuracy and reduces the risk of sampling nonrepresentative tissue. The principal limitation is sample size, a core biopsy may not provide enough tissue for immunohistochemistry or for assessment of architectural features such as encapsulation. The MSD Veterinary Manual notes that biopsy samples must be handled gently to preserve tissue architecture and that samples should be placed in fixative immediately after collection.

Excisional Biopsy: Technique and Indications

Excisional biopsy removes the entire lesion with a margin of surrounding normal tissue. It serves as both diagnosis and treatment. This approach is appropriate when the lesion is small enough that complete removal is feasible without excessive morbidity, when the preoperative differential diagnosis includes benign and malignant possibilities that cannot be distinguished cytologically, or when the owner has declined a two-stage approach.

Marginal Excision

Marginal excision removes the lesion with a narrow cuff of normal tissue, typically 1 to 2 mm. This is adequate for benign tumors and for malignant tumors with low metastatic potential that are known to be well circumscribed, such as grade I mast cell tumors in dogs. The pathologist must examine the entire margin to confirm that neoplastic cells do not extend to the inked edge. If margins are incomplete, the options are re-excision of the scar bed or close monitoring with client education about recurrence risk.

Wide Excision

Wide excision removes the lesion with a 2 to 3 cm margin of normal tissue in all planes, including deep margins. This is the preferred approach for malignant tumors with known local recurrence potential, such as soft tissue sarcomas, feline injection-site sarcomas, and high-grade mast cell tumors. Wide excision is often not possible in the initial biopsy setting because the extent of the tumor is not known until histopathology is performed. In these cases, incisional biopsy followed by planned wide resection is the safer sequence.

Tissue Handling and Artifact Prevention

The diagnostic value of any biopsy depends on tissue handling after collection. Samples should be placed in 10% neutral buffered formalin at a volume ratio of at least 10 parts fixative to 1 part tissue. Large specimens should be sectioned to allow adequate penetration. Electrocautery should be avoided at the biopsy margin because thermal artifact can render the margin uninterpretable. Sutures or staples used to mark orientation should be placed in normal tissue, not through the lesion itself. The American College of Veterinary Surgeons emphasizes that communication between surgeon and pathologist, including a complete history and description of the lesion, improves diagnostic accuracy and margin interpretation.

Margin Considerations and the Biopsy Tract

The biopsy tract is considered contaminated tissue and must be excised en bloc with the definitive resection specimen. This principle applies to both incisional and excisional biopsies. A biopsy tract that crosses a fascial plane or a joint space can convert a contained tumor into a disseminated one, because tumor cells may be carried along the tract during the biopsy procedure. The surgeon must plan the biopsy approach with the definitive resection in mind, placing the incision so that it lies within the boundaries of the eventual wide excision. This planning is particularly important for extremity tumors, where a poorly placed biopsy can preclude limb-sparing options. The surgical oncology literature on osteosarcoma management identifies inappropriate biopsy site as a relative contraindication to limb-sparing surgery, a principle that applies equally to veterinary patients.

Decision Framework: Selecting Biopsy Type by Lesion Characteriztics

The choice between incisional and excisional biopsy rests on a small set of lesion attributes: size, location, suspected biologic behavior, and the functional consequences of complete removal. A practical decision sequence begins with palpation and cytology, then proceeds to imaging when depth or bony involvement is suspected, and only then to biopsy planning. Cytology that returns a definitive diagnosis of a benign process such as a lipoma may obviate biopsy entirely. Cytology that is non-diagnostic, inflammatory, or suggestive of malignancy moves the case toward tissue sampling.

Lesion size is the first branch point. Lesions smaller than the anticipated surgical margin can usually be removed in their entirety. For a suspected mast cell tumor in a dog, a 2 cm cutaneous nodule on the trunk is amenable to excisional biopsy with planned 2 to 3 cm lateral margins and one fascial plane deep. The same tumor at 6 cm diameter on the distal limb may not permit wide excision without amputation, making incisional biopsy the prudent first step. The guiding principle is that the first procedure should not compromise the definitive procedure. An inappropriately placed incisional biopsy tract can contaminate tissue planes and force a wider resection than would otherwise be required, a problem well recognized in human orthopedic oncology where an inappropriate biopsy site is listed among relative contraindications to limb-sparing surgery.

Location modifies the decision in predictable ways. The trunk and proximal limbs tolerate wide excision with primary closure or simple reconstruction. The distal limb, head, and perineum have limited skin mobility and critical underlying structures. A lesion over the carpus that proves to be a low-grade sarcoma may be manageable with marginal excision and adjuvant radiation, whereas the same lesion on the flank is better served by wide excision at the outset. The clinician must weigh the morbidity of a potentially unnecessary wide excision against the morbidity of a second surgery when the first margin is incomplete.

Patient status and owner goals also shift the decision. A geriatric cat with a slowly growing subcutaneous mass and comorbidities that increase anesthetic risk may be better served by excisional biopsy of a small lesion even when the preoperative diagnosis is uncertain, because a single anesthetic event accomplishes both diagnosis and treatment. The same lesion in a young performance dog may warrant incisional biopsy first, allowing the owner to make an informed decision about postoperative function before committing to wide resection.

Biopsy Tract Planning and Surgical Approach

The biopsy tract must be considered a contaminated structure that will be excised en bloc with the definitive resection. This principle applies to both incisional and excisional biopsy. For incisional biopsy, the skin incision should be oriented along the line of the eventual definitive incision whenever that line can be predicted. On a limb, a longitudinal incision parallel to the long axis is preferred over a transverse incision, because the definitive resection will incorporate the biopsy scar and the underlying tract. A transverse biopsy scar on a limb may force a much larger resection or complicate closure.

The biopsy incision should be placed directly over the lesion through the shortest viable path. Dissection should not undermine skin edges or create tissue planes beyond the immediate biopsy site. Each additional plane opened is a potential route for tumor cell implantation. Hemostasis must be meticulous, because a postoperative hematoma can dissect along fascial planes and carry viable tumor cells beyond the biopsy site. The biopsy tract, the skin incision, and any drain site must all be included in the definitive resection specimen.

For deep lesions, the surgeon must decide whether to approach through a single tissue plane or to traverse multiple muscle compartments. The latter is discouraged. A core needle biopsy or a small incisional approach through the most direct route, with careful closure of each layer, minimizes contamination. When imaging has been performed, the biopsy should target the viable, contrast-enhancing periphery of the lesion instead of the central necrotic region. Sampling the center of a large sarcoma frequently yields only necrotic debris and a non-diagnostic report.

Tissue Handling Checklist

The diagnostic value of a biopsy depends as much on post-excision handling as on the surgical technique itself. A standardized checklist reduces the common failures: crush artifact, desiccation, improper fixation, and lost orientation.

• Handle tissue gently with forceps on the margin or on a suture tag, never on the diagnostic surface.
• Do not crush, crush with hemostats, or use electrocautery on the specimen margin.
• Place the specimen immediately in fixative. For routine histopathology, 10% neutral buffered formalin at a volume of at least 10 times the tissue volume is standard. Larger specimens may require trimming to allow penetration.
• Do not freeze tissue intended for routine histopathology unless frozen section analysis is specifically requested.
• Suture the specimen to a rigid support such as a tongue depressor or cork board if it is small or prone to curling.
• Ink or suture-mark the surgical margins with a distinct code, and record the code in the patient record.
• Submit separate tissue samples in separate containers when different fixatives are required, such as fresh tissue for culture, flow cytometry, or genetic testing.
• Complete the submission form with signalment, lesion location, duration, gross description, and a clinical differential list.
• For excisional biopsies, state the intended margin width and the anatomic structures at the deep margin.

Documentation and Communication with Pathology

The histopathology report is only as useful as the clinical information that accompanies the specimen. A report that describes a mast cell tumor without histologic grade, or a sarcoma without margin assessment, forces a clinical decision on incomplete information. The surgeon should request margin evaluation explicitly when it is clinically relevant. For excisional biopsies, the pathologist should be told which margins are closest to the lesion and which structures form those margins, such as skin, subcutaneous fat, or muscle fascia.

Margin assessment requires that the specimen be oriented. A single suture at the 12 o'clock position, or two sutures of different lengths at separate positions, allows the pathologist to report margin status by location. Without orientation, a report of "margins unclear" or "tumor extends to one lateral margin" leaves the surgeon unable to plan a targeted re-excision. The clinician should also record the distance from the lesion to the closest margin as measured in the fresh specimen, because formalin fixation causes tissue shrinkage that can underestimate the true in vivo margin.

Communication should extend beyond the written report. When the histopathologic diagnosis conflicts with the clinical appearance or the cytologic impression, a direct conversation with the pathologist is warranted. Discrepancies may reflect sampling error, a tumor with heterogeneous differentiation, or an unusual variant. Review of the slides with the pathologist is particularly valuable for round cell tumors and for sarcomas where grade drives the treatment recommendation. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides species-specific guidance on tumor classification and grading that can inform these discussions.

Species and Production System Considerations

The biopsy principles described here apply across species, but practical execution varies. In equine practice, most skin masses are sampled under standing sedation with local anesthesia, and the larger tissue volume available permits generous incisional biopsies. Excisional biopsy of a small sarcoid on the face must account for the high recurrence rate of this tumor and the cosmetic and functional constraints of the region. In food animal practice, the cost of histopathology relative to the animal's value often shifts the decision toward excisional biopsy or no biopsy at all. A beef cow with a 3 cm cutaneous mass is more likely to receive a standing excision than an incisional biopsy followed by a second procedure. The WOAH terrestrial animal health standards address disease surveillance and reporting obligations that may apply when lesions are suspected to be of regulatory importance, and these obligations can override the usual biopsy algorithm.

In exotic and avian patients, sample volume is often the limiting factor. A punch biopsy of 3 to 4 mm may represent a substantial portion of a small patient's skin, and hemostasis can be challenging. The clinician should plan the biopsy to serve as both diagnosis and treatment when the lesion is small enough, because a second procedure may carry disproportionate risk. In all species, the biopsy plan should be written in the medical record before the procedure, including the biopsy type, the orientation of the incision, the planned margins, and the handling protocol. This record becomes the reference point for the definitive surgery and for any discussion of outcome with the owner.

Complications and Early Detection of Biopsy Failure

The most consequential complication of biopsy is diagnostic non-yield, where the sample is insufficient, non-representative, or too damaged for histopathologic interpretation. Early detection begins in the operating room. The surgeon should inspect the specimen immediately after harvest for size, consistency, and architectural integrity. A wedge biopsy that fragments, a punch that separates into epidermis and dermis, or a core that appears as blood clot instead of solid tissue should prompt immediate re-biopsy while the patient is still anesthetized. Delayed detection, after the patient has recovered, forces a second anesthetic event and delays treatment planning.

Hemorrhage is the second major complication. It occurs most often with core needle biopsy of highly vascular masses or with deep wedge biopsies near major vessels. Detection is intraoperative: persistent oozing that does not respond to pressure, or swelling that expands during closure. The surgeon should also monitor the patient in the immediate postoperative period for signs of ongoing bleeding, including tachycardia, pale mucous membranes, and a distended or painful surgical site. Seroma formation is a later complication, typically detected at the 48 to 72 hour recheck as a fluctuant swelling beneath the incision.

Infection is less common but carries specific risk when biopsy tracts cross contaminated fields or when the biopsy site is near a draining tract. Early signs include erythema, heat, purulent discharge, and dehiscence. Wound breakdown after biopsy is particularly problematic because it can expose the biopsy tract and, in the case of a neoplastic lesion, create a contaminated wound that complicates subsequent definitive resection.

Tumor seeding along the biopsy tract remains a recognized failure mode. The risk is highest with needle core techniques that traverse multiple tissue planes and with biopsies of aggressive malignancies. Detection is delayed, often appearing weeks to months later as a palpable nodule along the original biopsy path. This complication is best prevented by planning the biopsy tract so that it lies within the field of any subsequent resection, a principle emphasized in the surgical management of extremity and pelvic osteosarcoma, where an inappropriately placed biopsy is cited as a common reason for amputation.

Common Errors and Corrective Actions

The most frequent error in biopsy technique is selecting a sample site that is not representative of the lesion. Necrotic or ulcerated regions yield nondiagnostic material. The corrective action is to biopsy the active, viable periphery of the mass, avoiding central cavitation and grossly necrotic zones. When multiple samples are taken, each should be placed in a separately labeled container with its anatomic location recorded.

A second common error is excessive tissue manipulation. Crushing with forceps, electrocautery at the sample edge, and desiccation during prolonged dissection all degrade histologic architecture. The corrective action is to handle the specimen gently with toothed forceps on the margin that will not be examined, and to use a scalpel blade instead of scissors where possible. Cautery should be reserved for hemostasis after the sample is harvested, not used to cut the sample itself.

A third error is submitting an undersized sample. A punch biopsy that is too small for the lesion, or a wedge that is too shallow, may capture only reactive stroma or inflammation instead of the neoplastic population. The corrective action is to size the biopsy to the lesion, taking the largest sample that can be harvested without compromising subsequent definitive surgery.

A fourth error involves fixation. Placing a large specimen in a small volume of formalin, or allowing the sample to dry before fixation, produces artifact that limits interpretation. The corrective action is to use a formalin-to-tissue ratio of at least 10 to 1 and to place the sample in fixative immediately after harvest.

Troubleshooting Table

Limitations of Current Evidence and Areas of Expert Disagreement

The veterinary literature on biopsy technique is largely extrapolated from human surgical oncology and from retrospective case series instead of prospective randomized trials. Direct comparative data on complication rates between incisional and excisional biopsy in companion animals are sparse. Expert opinion differs on several points. The first is whether fine-needle aspiration should precede incisional biopsy for all masses, or whether a single well-planned biopsy is sufficient. The second is the acceptable interval between biopsy and definitive resection, with some authorities recommending surgery within two to four weeks and others accepting longer delays for slow-growing tumors. The third is the role of intraoperative cytology as an adjunct to biopsy, with some surgeons using it to guide sampling while others consider it insufficiently sensitive.

There is also genuine uncertainty about the clinical significance of tumor cell dissemination at biopsy. While the principle of tract seeding is well accepted, the actual impact on survival and local recurrence rates in veterinary patients is not well quantified. The modern criteria for establishing cancer etiology emphasize that causal relationships require consistent evidence across multiple study designs, and such evidence does not yet exist for biopsy-related dissemination in veterinary oncology.

Referral, Consultation, and Reporting

Referral to a surgical specialist is warranted when the lesion is large, deeply invasive, or located in a region where the biopsy tract will be difficult to incorporate into a subsequent resection. Examples include masses overlying major neurovascular structures, tumors of the oral cavity or pharynx, and lesions involving the axial skeleton. Specialist consultation is also appropriate when the referring veterinarian is uncertain whether the lesion is amenable to complete excision, since the biopsy approach should be planned with the definitive surgery in mind.

Laboratory consultation is indicated before biopsy when the differential diagnosis includes conditions that require special handling. These include suspected endocrine tumors that may need electron microscopy, suspected lymphoproliferative disease that may require flow cytometry on fresh tissue, and suspected infectious agents that may need culture or polymerase chain reaction. The pathologist should be contacted in advance whenever special handling is anticipated.

Regulatory reporting is required for lesions suspected to be of public health significance, including those consistent with reportable neoplasms in food-producing animals. The WOAH terrestrial animal health standards and AVMA professional practice resources provide guidance on which conditions must be reported and to which authority. The MSD Veterinary Manual offers species-specific information on notifiable diseases that may present as mass lesions. When in doubt, the clinician should contact the relevant regulatory body before biopsy or immediately after a suspicious histopathologic diagnosis is returned.

Frequently Asked Questions

How Should I Choose Between Incisional and Excisional Biopsy When Cost Is a Primary Constraint for the Owner?

Cost containment should not override diagnostic logic. A single, well-placed incisional biopsy is often less expensive than a wide excision performed without a confirmed diagnosis, particularly if the lesion proves to be a benign process that did not require aggressive resection. Conversely, a small, mobile, superficial mass in a compliant patient may be removed excisonally at a cost comparable to biopsy alone, sparing the owner a second procedure. Discuss the financial implications of both pathways before surgery. If the owner can afford only one procedure, an incisional biopsy with histopathology usually provides more actionable information than an excision with incomplete margins and no treatment plan.

What Are My Options When a Biopsy Punch or Core Needle Instrument Is Not Available?

A scalpel blade can substitute for most biopsy instruments. For punch-type samples, use a No. 11 blade to score a circular or elliptical outline, then lift the center with fine forceps and cut beneath the base. For core-like samples, a wedge excision through the full thickness of the lesion provides comparable diagnostic material. The critical principles are to avoid crushing the tissue with forceps, to include a margin of normal tissue at the deep edge, and to place the biopsy tract so that it can be excised en bloc at definitive surgery. As described in ACVS surgical resources, the biopsy site must be planned with the definitive procedure in mind.

How Does Biopsy Technique Differ in Exotic or Avian Patients Compared with Dogs and Cats?

Tissue volume constraints dominate decision making in exotic species. A 2 mm punch biopsy in a budgerigar may represent a substantial portion of the limb, and hemorrhage control is more challenging. Excisional biopsy is often preferred for small, discrete masses because it removes the lesion and provides diagnosis in one step, avoiding a second anesthetic episode. Hemostasis options include topical agents, radiosurgery, and fine ligatures. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides species-specific guidance on anesthetic risk and tissue handling. In production animals, biopsy decisions are influenced by the animal's economic value and the flock or herd context, and incisional biopsy is frequently performed standing with local anesthesia.

What Information Must Be Recorded in the Medical Record After a Biopsy Procedure?

The record must allow a subsequent surgeon to plan definitive resection without repeating diagnostic steps. Document the lesion location with measurements and photographs, the biopsy technique used, the orientation of the biopsy tract, and the number of samples taken. Record whether the biopsy was placed within the lesion, at the margin, or in normal tissue. Note any intraoperative complications such as hemorrhage or inadvertent capsule penetration. Include a diagram showing the biopsy site relative to the mass and anatomic landmarks. The AVMA practice resources emphasize that medical records must support continuity of care and medicolegal review. The histopathology submission form should cross-reference the record so that margin status can be interpreted in context.

How Should I Explain a Biopsy Recommendation to a Client Who Wants the Mass Removed Immediately?

Acknowledge the owner's urgency while explaining that the biopsy determines the surgical plan. Use a concrete analogy: removing a mass without knowing its type is like renovating a house without an inspection. Explain that some masses require wide margins, others need only marginal excision, and some should not be surgically disturbed at all before staging. Describe the difference between incisional biopsy, which provides a diagnosis in days, and excisional biopsy, which may require a second surgery if margins are incomplete. The WOAH terrestrial animal health standards note that diagnostic accuracy underpins treatment decisions in animal health. Reassure the owner that the biopsy is a short procedure and that the histopathology report will guide the next step.

When Should I Submit Tissue for Culture or Other Testing in Addition to Histopathology?

Submit additional samples when infection is in the differential diagnosis, particularly for ulcerated, draining, or rapidly growing lesions. A separate sterile sample for aerobic and anaerobic culture should be collected before the tissue is placed in formalin. If the lesion is suspected to be a foreign body reaction, submit a sample for culture and consider polarized light microscopy on the fixed tissue. For lesions with unusual gross appearance, reserve a fresh, unfixed sample in a sterile container with saline-moistened gauze for possible flow cytometry, cytogenetics, or biobanking. Communicate with the pathology laboratory before surgery if special testing is anticipated, as some assays require specific collection and transport conditions.

Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

• Perioperative Antibiotic Prophylaxis: Timing and Selection
• Surgical Approaches to the Femur and Stifle
• Fracture Healing Assessment: Radiographic and Clinical Evaluation

References and Further Reading

• Surgery insight: natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery--an analysis of work to date.. 2007.
• Modern criteria to establish human cancer etiology.. 2004.
• Macular corneal dystrophy: A review.. 2018.
• Surgical management of pelvic and extremity osteosarcoma.. 1993.
• "Ligamentization" in hamstring tendon grafts after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a systematic review of the literature and a glimpse into the future.. 2013.
• Artificial skin, split-thickness autograft and cultured autologous keratinocytes combined to treat a severe burn injury of 93% of TBSA.. 2000.
• American College of Veterinary Surgeons Animal Health Resources. American College of Veterinary Surgeons.
• MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition. MSD Veterinary Manual.
• American Veterinary Medical Association Practice Resources. American Veterinary Medical Association.

Related Articles

• Surgical Oncology: Biopsy Techniques and Margin Assessment
• Surgical Retractors and Exposure Techniques in Small Animals
• Surgical Draping Materials and Techniques for Contamination Control
• Surgical Instrumentation: Essential Set and Handling Techniques
• Surgical Scrub Techniques and Sterile Gowning Protocols

This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.