Surgical Approaches to the Canine Shoulder: Cranial and Caudal

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-08-11

Key Takeaways

• The cranial approach to the canine shoulder is indicated for osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) of the humeral head, particularly craniolateral lesions, and provides access to the cranial joint compartment and biceps tendon origin. This approach involves dissecting between the acromial head of the deltoideus and the infraspinatus muscles, with the suprascapular nerve at risk if infraspinatus retraction is excessive.
• The caudal approach is reserved for lesions on the caudal humeral head or caudal glenoid rim, and foreign body retrieval, where cranial exposure is insufficient. It requires dissection between the deltoideus and the long head of the triceps, with the axillary nerve and caudal circumflex humeral vessels being critical structures to protect within the quadrangular space.
• Approach selection is primarily dictated by lesion location, with OCD of the humeral head most commonly affecting caudal and caudolateral aspects. While a modified craniolateral approach can adequately expose caudal OCD lesions in many cases, the caudal approach offers direct access to the caudal joint compartment, often necessitating a teres minor tenotomy for optimal visualization.
• Neurovascular structures are a primary concern during dissection; the suprascapular nerve is at risk with excessive infraspinatus retraction in the cranial approach, while the axillary and radial nerves are vulnerable during caudal approach dissection and triceps retraction, respectively.
• Patient size influences approach feasibility and risk; smaller dogs may benefit from a modified craniolateral approach to avoid deep dissection in the caudal approach, whereas larger, heavily muscled dogs require more aggressive retraction for adequate exposure, increasing the risk of iatrogenic injury.
• Postoperative pain management is critical due to the high sensory nerve density of the shoulder joint capsule, particularly at the labrum and glenoid rim, supporting the use of periarticular analgesia and meticulous soft tissue handling regardless of the surgical approach.

Open arthrotomy of the canine shoulder is indicated when intraarticular pathology requires direct visualization, instrumented manipulation, or lesion debridement that cannot be achieved through minimally invasive means. This article details the cranial and caudal surgical approaches to the scapulohumeral joint, with emphasis on patient positioning, incision placement, muscle retraction, and the exposure limitations specific to each approach. It is written for the practicing veterinarian who performs joint surgery and requires a precise, reproducible reference for procedural planning.

The clinical questions addressed are practical: which approach exposes the humeral head adequately for osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) debridement, how does one protect the neurovascular structures during caudal dissection, and what exposure can realistically be expected from each approach. The scope is limited to open techniques. Arthroscopic portals and minimally invasive modifications are excluded, although their existence and relative advantages are acknowledged where relevant to decision-making.

At a Glance

Functional Anatomy and Approach Selection

The canine shoulder is a congruent, minimally constrained joint whose stability depends on periarticular muscles, the joint capsule, and the glenohumeral ligaments. The humeral head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula, and the joint capsule attaches proximal to the glenoid rim and distal to the articular margin of the humeral head. Understanding this capsular anatomy is essential because arthrotomy requires a deliberate capsular incision that can be repaired without compromising joint stability.

The sensory innervation of the shoulder joint capsule is relevant to postoperative pain management. The capsule has the highest sensory nerve density of any shoulder structure, and the attachment sites between the labrum, capsule, and glenoid rim are particularly densely innervated, as described in a systematic review of shoulder sensory-dependent locations by Park and colleagues. This finding supports the use of periarticular analgesia and gentle tissue handling during arthrotomy, as capsular trauma contributes disproportionately to postoperative discomfort.

Approach selection is driven by lesion location. Osteochondritis dissecans of the humeral head in dogs most commonly affects the caudal and caudolateral aspects of the articular surface. A modified craniolateral approach has been described for minimally invasive treatment of shoulder OCD, and in a series of 164 shoulders, this approach allowed visibility and adequate exposure of the caudal humeral head surface in all cases. For open surgery, the cranial approach provides access to the craniolateral joint and, with appropriate retraction, the caudolateral humeral head. The caudal approach is reserved for lesions or foreign bodies located in the caudal joint compartment where cranial exposure is insufficient.

Cranial Approach

Positioning and Landmarks

Place the dog in lateral recumbency with the affected limb uppermost. The limb is gently abducted and externally rotated to relax the lateral shoulder musculature and bring the craniolateral joint capsule into a more superficial position. A sandbag or vacuum-positioning device placed under the thorax stabilizes the patient and prevents rotation during dissection. Clip the entire shoulder region from mid-scapula to mid-humerus, and prepare the limb for aseptic surgery so that the limb can be manipulated intraoperatively without contaminating the field.

Palpate the acromion of the scapula, the greater tubercle of the humerus, and the spine of the scapula. The acromion is the most prominent lateral landmark and serves as the proximal reference for the skin incision. The greater tubercle lies distal and slightly cranial to the acromion and marks the insertion of the supraspinatus and infraspinatus tendons. The deltoid tuberosity on the lateral humerus is the distal limit of the dissection field.

Incision and Superficial Dissection

Make a curved skin incision beginning over the distal third of the scapular spine, curving cranially over the acromion, and extending distally along the craniolateral aspect of the humerus to the level of the deltoid tuberosity. The curve should be gentle, with the concavity facing caudally. Incise the subcutaneous tissue along the same line, and identify the superficial fascia overlying the deltoideus and infraspinatus muscles. The cephalic vein courses craniomedially and is usually not encountered, but its position should be noted in case the incision is extended cranially.

The superficial dissection exposes the acromial head of the deltoideus muscle, which originates from the acromion and inserts on the deltoid tuberosity. The infraspinatus muscle lies caudal to the deltoideus, and its tendon of insertion passes over the craniolateral aspect of the joint capsule to attach on the greater tubercle. The interval between the acromial head of the deltoideus and the infraspinatus is the key surgical plane for the cranial approach.

Deep Dissection and Arthrotomy

Retract the acromial head of the deltoideus cranially and the infraspinatus caudally. This exposes the underlying joint capsule and the tendon of the supraspinatus muscle, which passes cranially over the joint. The suprascapular nerve runs deep to the supraspinatus and is protected if dissection remains caudal to that muscle. Incise the joint capsule parallel to the humeral head, beginning at the lateral edge of the supraspinatus tendon and extending caudally toward the infraspinatus tendon. The incision should be made with the joint slightly flexed to relax the capsule and reduce the risk of iatrogenic articular cartilage damage.

Extend the capsular incision as needed to improve exposure. The craniolateral humeral head and the lateral aspect of the glenoid are directly visible. With external rotation of the humerus, the caudolateral humeral head can be brought into view. The caudal humeral head surface, where OCD lesions are most commonly located, is visible in most cases with appropriate retraction and rotation, consistent with the exposure reported for the modified craniolateral approach in the OCD case series.

Exposure and Limitations

The cranial approach provides excellent exposure of the craniolateral joint compartment and adequate exposure of the caudolateral humeral head. Its principal limitation is access to the caudomedial humeral head, which remains obscured by the intact joint capsule and the overlying infraspinatus and teres minor muscles. In heavily muscled or obese dogs, retraction becomes more difficult and exposure of the caudal joint is correspondingly reduced. If the lesion cannot be adequately visualized through the cranial approach, conversion to a caudal approach or a combined approach should be considered instead of attempting blind debridement.

Caudal Approach

Positioning and Superficial Dissection

The caudal approach serves when the lesion lies on the caudal humeral head or when the cranial approach has already been used and revision is required. Place the dog in lateral recumbency with the affected limb uppermost. The dependent limb is pulled caudally and secured. A sandbag or vacuum-positioning pillow placed under the thorax rotates the scapula slightly, bringing the caudal joint margin into a more accessible plane. Clip from the dorsal scapular spine to the mid-humerus and from the midline of the scapula to the caudal border of the triceps muscle group.

The skin incision begins at the acromion, curves caudally along the caudal border of the deltoideus muscle, and extends distally to the level of the deltoid tuberosity. The subcutaneous fat is divided along the same line. The superficial vein running along the caudal border of the deltoideus is ligated or cauterised where it crosses the surgical field. The fascial plane between the deltoideus cranially and the long head of the triceps caudally is identified by blunt dissection. This internervous plane separates the axillary nerve territory (deltoideus) from the radial nerve territory (triceps), so retraction here does not denervate either muscle.

Deep Dissection and Joint Entry

Retract the deltoideus cranially and the triceps long head caudally. The teres minor muscle and its tendon become visible deep to this interval. The axillary nerve and caudal circumflex humeral vessels pass through the quadrangular space just caudal to the teres minor, they must be identified and protected before deeper dissection proceeds. Palpate the teres minor tendon as it courses obliquely across the caudal joint capsule toward its insertion on the humerus.

Two options exist for joint entry. The first is a tenotomy of the teres minor tendon, performed 5 mm from its humeral insertion to leave a stump for repair. This provides direct access to the caudolateral and caudodorsal joint space. The second option is a capsulotomy caudal to the teres minor tendon, preserving the tendon but limiting exposure to the caudoventral joint. Tenotomy is preferred when the lesion is large or located on the caudal third of the humeral head, because the tendon otherwise obscures the arthrotomy. The tendon is repaired with a locking-loop or three-loop pulley pattern using absorbable monofilament suture.

The joint capsule is incised parallel to the humeral head curvature. The incision starts at the caudal glenoid rim and extends distally to the level of the teres minor insertion. The capsule in this region is thin and closely applied to the humeral head. A stay suture placed in the caudal capsule edge aids retraction and prevents the capsule from slipping off the joint surface during manipulation.

Exposure and Closure

The caudal approach exposes the caudal third of the humeral head, the caudal glenoid rim, and the caudal joint capsule. The biceps tendon origin and the cranial joint compartment are not visible through this approach. Flexion and internal rotation of the shoulder bring more of the caudal humeral head into view. The axillary nerve is at risk during retraction if the retractor blades are placed too deeply, and the radial nerve is at risk if the triceps retraction is excessive.

Closure begins with the joint capsule using simple interrupted sutures of absorbable monofilament. The teres minor tendon, if divided, is repaired next. The fascial layer over the deltoideus and triceps is closed with a continuous pattern, followed by subcutaneous and skin closure. Postoperative support includes a light bandage for 48 hours and restricted leash activity for 3 to 4 weeks. The teres minor tenotomy requires a longer activity restriction than a simple capsulotomy because the tendon repair must mature before weight-bearing loads are resumed.

Approach Selection and Decision Framework

The choice between cranial and caudal approaches depends on lesion location, patient size, and the need for concurrent procedures. The cranial approach provides access to the cranial and lateral humeral head, the biceps tendon origin, and the cranial glenoid. The caudal approach is reserved for lesions of the caudal humeral head and caudal glenoid rim. The modified craniolateral approach described by Vezzoni and colleagues was developed specifically to reduce invasiveness while still allowing visibility of the caudal humeral head surface for OCD treatment, and their retrospective review of 164 shoulders found it adequate for this purpose in all cases Vezzoni A, Vezzoni L, Boiocchi S, Miolo A, Holsworth IG. A Modification of the Cheli Craniolateral Approach for Minimally Invasive Treatment of Osteochondritis Dissecans of the Shoulder in Dogs. This suggests that a single craniolateral approach may suffice for most OCD lesions, with the caudal approach reserved for lesions that extend beyond the reach of the craniolateral exposure.

Patient size changes the risk profile. In small dogs, the caudal approach offers limited working room, and the axillary nerve lies closer to the surgical field. The modified craniolateral approach may be preferable even for caudal lesions in small dogs because it avoids the deep dissection required for caudal exposure. In large-breed dogs with heavy musculature, the caudal approach provides more direct access to the caudal joint but requires stronger retraction, increasing the risk of traction injury to the axillary nerve. The surgeon should palpate the quadrangular space and confirm the axillary nerve position before placing deep retractors.

The sensory innervation of the shoulder joint is relevant to postoperative pain management regardless of approach. The shoulder capsule has the highest sensory nerve density of the joint structures, and the attachment sites between the labrum and capsule are highly sensory dependent Park AJ, Liu J, Sethi P, McMillan S, Ford E, Shepard MF, Amin NH. Identification of the Sensory Dependent Locations of the Shoulder Joint to Optimize Surgical Approaches and Reduce Postoperative Pain. This supports the use of intraarticular analgesia and careful soft tissue handling during arthrotomy, because capsular trauma contributes disproportionately to postoperative discomfort.

Intraoperative Assessment and Documentation

Before arthrotomy, the joint is assessed by palpation and manipulation under anesthesia. Crepitus, reduced range of motion, and pain on extension or flexion are recorded. After arthrotomy, the joint is inspected systematically. The biceps tendon origin is examined first in the cranial approach, followed by the humeral head from cranial to caudal, then the glenoid surface, and finally the caudal pouch. In the caudal approach, the inspection order is reversed.

Lesions are documented by location, size, and character. OCD lesions are described by their position on the humeral head using a clock-face system, with 12 o'clock at the cranial margin and 6 o'clock at the caudal margin. The size of the lesion is measured with a sterile ruler or by comparison with the width of an instrument tip. The presence of a loose cartilage flap, subchondral bone exposure, or a free cartilage fragment is recorded. Photographs are taken when available, and a written description is placed in the medical record.

The decision to perform a forage procedure, curettage, or fragment removal depends on the lesion type and the surgeon's preference. The evidence base for these decisions is limited, and the ACVS animal health resources provide general guidance on expected outcomes and postoperative management. The MSD Veterinary Manual offers additional reference material on shoulder conditions and their medical management, which is useful when surgical findings do not match the preoperative diagnosis.

Complications and Their Management

Intraoperative complications include hemorrhage from the caudal circumflex humeral vessels, nerve injury, and iatrogenic cartilage damage. Hemorrhage is controlled by direct pressure and ligation of the vessel if it is clearly identified. Nerve injury is prevented by visual identification of the axillary and radial nerves before retractor placement and by periodic release of retraction during long procedures. Iatrogenic cartilage damage occurs when instruments are forced into a tight joint space, this is prevented by adequate capsular release and by using a blunt probe instead of a sharp instrument to explore the joint.

Postoperative complications include seroma formation, wound dehiscence, and persistent lameness. Seromas are managed by closed suction drainage if they are large or by conservative management if small. Wound dehiscence is more common after teres minor tenotomy because the repair is under tension during weight bearing. Persistent lameness beyond 6 weeks warrants re-evaluation, including radiography and possibly repeat arthrotomy or advanced imaging. The surgeon should document the preoperative and postoperative lameness grade at each recheck to track recovery objectively.

The evidence base for complication rates after open shoulder arthrotomy in dogs is limited. The modified craniolateral approach described by Vezzoni and colleagues was developed in part to reduce postoperative complications observed with other approaches, and their case series reported clinical outcomes consistent with other reports using different surgical approaches for OCD lesions Vezzoni A, Vezzoni L, Boiocchi S, Miolo A, Holsworth IG. A Modification of the Cheli Craniolateral Approach for Minimally Invasive Treatment of Osteochondritis Dissecans of the Shoulder in Dogs. This supports the use of the least invasive approach that adequately exposes the lesion, instead of defaulting to a larger exposure.

Recognized Complications and Early Detection

The most frequently reported complication after open shoulder arthrotomy is postoperative lameness that persists beyond the expected soft tissue healing period. Seroma formation at the incision site occurs when dead space remains after closure of the deep muscle layers, particularly after the cranial approach when the acromial head of the deltoideus has been elevated. Wound dehiscence is uncommon but occurs more often in dogs that are allowed unrestricted activity before skin healing is complete. Infection is rare after clean elective arthrotomy, but the consequences are severe because septic arthritis rapidly degrades articular cartilage.

Early detection depends on a structured postoperative assessment. Rectal temperature elevation beyond 39.5°C on the second or third postoperative day warrants investigation, though mild transient pyrexia is common after any major joint surgery. Serial lameness scoring using a validated gait analysis system provides objective data when available. Joint swelling and effusion are best assessed by comparing the affected and contralateral shoulders during standing examination. Pain on full flexion or extension that increases instead of decreases over the first two weeks suggests an intraarticular problem instead of incisional discomfort.

Neuropraxia of the suprascapular nerve is a recognized but underreported complication of the cranial approach. The nerve passes through the supraspinous notch and can be traumatised by overzealous retraction of the supraspinatus muscle. Affected dogs show a characteriztic gait abnormality with delayed or absent protraction of the limb and atrophy of the supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles developing over three to six weeks. Electromyography can confirm denervation, but the diagnosis is usually clinical. Most cases resolve spontaneously over eight to twelve weeks.

Common Errors and Corrective Actions

The most common error in the cranial approach is incising too far distally, which places the joint capsule incision through the lateral glenohumeral ligament instead of through the capsule proper. This reduces exposure and risks iatrogenic damage to the caudal humeral head, the very region most often targeted for OCD lesion removal. The corrective action is to identify the acromion and the greater tubercle before incising and to confirm the joint capsule has been entered by visualizing synovial fluid before extending the incision.

In the caudal approach, the most frequent mistake is failing to identify and protect the axillary nerve and caudal circumflex humeral vessels as they pass deep to the teres minor muscle. Students and less experienced surgeons often mistake the teres minor tendon for the joint capsule and incise through it, creating a partial tenotomy that compromises postoperative stability. The discriminating check is to pass a closed forceps along the proposed incision line, the joint capsule is thin and the forceps tip enters the joint space, whereas the tendon is thick and resists passage.

Retraction injuries to the biceps brachii tendon occur when the tendon is held with sharp retractors instead of moistened gauze or a blunt Hohmann retractor. The biceps tendon is the primary stabilizer of the shoulder in weight bearing, and iatrogenic damage produces persistent lameness that is difficult to distinguish from the original disease process. If the tendon is inadvertently damaged, primary repair with a locking loop pattern is preferred over debridement alone.

Limitations of the Evidence and Divergent Expert Opinion

The evidence base for open shoulder approaches in dogs is largely derived from retrospective case series and expert opinion instead of prospective comparative trials. The modified craniolateral approach described for OCD treatment was evaluated in 164 shoulders with outcomes consistent with other surgical reports, but the study was retrospective and lacked a control group receiving arthroscopic treatment Vezzoni et al., description of a modified craniolateral approach for OCD. Direct comparison of open versus arthroscopic outcomes for shoulder OCD has not been performed in a randomised fashion.

Expert opinion differs on the necessity of tenotomy of the infraspinatus tendon for caudal humeral head exposure. Some surgeons advocate routine tenotomy with subsequent repair, arguing that it provides superior visualization of the caudolateral and caudomedial humeral head. Others maintain that adequate exposure is achievable without tenotomy in most dogs and that tenotomy adds morbidity and recovery time. The available literature does not resolve this disagreement, and the decision should be based on the individual patient's body condition and the surgeon's experience.

Sensory innervation of the shoulder capsule is densest at the capsulolabral junction and glenoid rim, which has implications for postoperative pain management regardless of surgical approach Park et al., identification of sensory dependent locations of the shoulder joint. However, this work derives from human studies, and the degree to which it transfers to canine anatomy is uncertain. Clinicians should not assume that the same sensory distribution applies in dogs.

Referral and Escalation Criteria

Referral to a board-certified veterinary surgeon is appropriate when the lesion cannot be adequately exposed through either standard approach, when the surgeon has not performed the procedure recently, or when the patient has comorbidities that increase anesthetic risk. Revision arthrotomy after a failed prior surgery carries substantially higher risk of iatrogenic injury because of scar tissue and altered landmarks, and these cases should be referred when the original surgeon lacks specific experience with revision procedures.

Laboratory involvement is indicated when septic arthritis is suspected. Arthrocentesis should be performed before antibiotic administration, and the sample submitted for cytology, Gram stain, and aerobic and anaerobic culture. Synovial fluid with nucleated cell counts above 30,000 cells per microlitre and a predominance of degenerate neutrophils supports a diagnosis of sepsis, but culture remains the definitive test.

Regulatory reporting requirements vary by jurisdiction. Postoperative infections involving multidrug-resistant organizms may be subject to surveillance reporting in some regions. The AVMA practice resources provide guidance on professional responsibilities regarding complication disclosure and reporting. International movement of dogs after shoulder surgery is not typically restricted, but clinicians should consult WOAH terrestrial animal health standards when certifying animals for export, as some destination countries require specific health certification for surgical sites.

Frequently Asked Questions

How do I decide between a cranial and caudal approach when imaging is inconclusive?

When radiographs or ultrasound cannot confirm the lesion location, the cranial approach is the safer default. It provides access to the cranial joint compartment, the glenoid, and the craniolateral humeral head, and it can be extended to visualize the caudal humeral head in many dogs. The caudal approach is reserved for confirmed caudomedial lesions, such as caudally located osteochondritis dissecans flaps, because it offers limited access to the cranial compartment. If the lesion is suspected but not confirmed, perform arthroscopy first when available, or open the joint cranially and use a blunt probe to explore the caudal pouch before committing to a second arthrotomy. The ACVS small animal resources describe the typical lesion locations that guide this decision.

What equipment is essential, and what can I substitute in a general practice setting?

Essential equipment includes a pneumatic or oscillating saw for the acromion osteotomy in the caudal approach, osteotomes, a mallet, and a periosteal elevator. In a general practice without a saw, a sharp osteotome and mallet are acceptable for the osteotomy, but the cut must be completed cleanly to avoid fragmentation. Gelpi retractors are strongly preferred for deep retraction, if unavailable, use Hohmann retractors placed carefully around the glenoid rim. A headlamp improves visualization of the caudal joint pouch substantially. Suture anchors or bone tunnels for biceps tendon reattachment are not required for the standard approaches described here. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides general guidance on perioperative instrumentation and aseptic technique.

How does the approach differ in a chondrodystrophic or heavily muscled breed?

In heavily muscled breeds such as the Labrador Retriever or Rottweiler, the caudal approach requires a longer incision and more aggressive retraction of the deltoideus and infraspinatus muscles. The acromion osteotomy must be large enough to allow the acromial head of the deltoideus to be reflected distally without tension. In chondrodystrophic breeds, the joint is relatively shallow and the humeral head is more rounded, which improves access to the caudal pouch through the cranial approach. The modified craniolateral approach described for osteochondritis dissecans treatment has been reported to provide adequate exposure of the caudal humeral head surface across a range of body sizes, but the surgeon should anticipate that exposure in a 40 kg dog will require more forceful retraction and a longer skin incision than in a 10 kg dog.

What should I document in the medical record after a shoulder arthrotomy?

Record the approach used, the side, the position of the dog, and the specific muscles incised or retracted. Document the findings in a standardized format: the appearance of the synovial fluid, the articular cartilage of the humeral head and glenoid, the biceps tendon origin, and the caudal joint pouch. Note whether the joint was explored with a probe and whether any loose bodies were retrieved. Describe the closure method for the joint capsule, the acromion osteotomy repair if performed, and the suture pattern and material used. Include a diagram when possible. Postoperative instructions should specify the duration of strict rest, the planned recheck interval, and the expected timeline for return to weight bearing. The AVMA practice resources offer general guidance on medical record standards for surgical procedures.

How do I explain the procedure and expected recovery to the owner?

Explain that the shoulder joint is opened surgically to remove a cartilage flap or inspect the joint surfaces. Use a simple diagram to show the difference between the cranial and caudal approaches. State that the dog will be non-weight bearing on the limb for the first 1 to 2 weeks and will require strict confinement for 4 to 6 weeks. Mention that most dogs return to comfortable function within 8 to 12 weeks, but that arthritis will progress regardless of surgery. Be honest about the risk of seroma formation, which is common after the caudal approach, and the small risk of infection or implant failure if an osteotomy was performed. The ACVS small animal resources provide client-oriented summaries that can be printed and shared.

When should I refer the case instead of perform the arthrotomy myself?

Refer when the lesion location is uncertain after imaging, when the dog is very large and the caudal approach is likely to be technically demanding, or when you lack the instrumentation for a clean acromion osteotomy. Refer also if you have not performed a shoulder arthrotomy within the past year, as the learning curve for the caudal approach is steep. If the dog has concurrent elbow or carpal disease that requires simultaneous evaluation, referral to a facility with arthroscopy is appropriate. The modified craniolateral approach for osteochondritis dissecans has been described as a minimally invasive alternative that may be easier to master than the full caudal approach, but it still requires specific training. When in doubt, a preoperative referral for arthroscopy is less costly to the owner than a failed arthrotomy that requires revision.

Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

• Perioperative Antibiotic Prophylaxis: Timing and Selection
• Surgical Approaches to the Femur and Stifle
• Fracture Healing Assessment: Radiographic and Clinical Evaluation

References and Further Reading

• A Modification of the Cheli Craniolateral Approach for Minimally Invasive Treatment of Osteochondritis Dissecans of the Shoulder in Dogs: Description of the Technique and Outcome in 164 Cases.. 2021.
• Arthroscopic surgical approaches and intraarticular anatomy of the equine shoulder joint.. 1987.
• Identification of the Sensory Dependent Locations of the Shoulder Joint to Optimize Surgical Approaches and Reduce Postoperative Pain: A Systematic Review.. 2020.
• Rotator cuff repair: a review of surgical techniques, animal models, and new technologies under development.. 2016.
• Surgical approaches to canine appendicular osteosarcoma part 1- anatomic landmarks and amputation techniques.. 2025.
• Regenerative medicine in rotator cuff injuries.. 2014.
• American College of Veterinary Surgeons Animal Health Resources. American College of Veterinary Surgeons.
• MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition. MSD Veterinary Manual.
• American Veterinary Medical Association Practice Resources. American Veterinary Medical Association.

Related Articles

• Surgical Approaches to the Scapula and Shoulder
• Surgical Approaches to the Canine Elbow: Techniques and Nuances
• Surgical Approaches to the Canine Stifle: Medial and Lateral
• Surgical Approaches to the Carpus and Tarsus
• Surgical Approaches to the Femur and Stifle

This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.