Surgical Approaches to the Pelvis and Acetabulum

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-08-11

Key Takeaways

• Diagnostic Imaging Modalities: High-quality orthogonal radiographs are the first-line assessment for pelvic fractures, with computed tomography (CT) being essential for increased sensitivity in complex fractures, particularly those involving the acetabulum and sacrum. 2D-CT is more accurate for fracture characterization by experienced evaluators, while 3D-CT aids in spatial orientation.
• Critical Neurovascular Structures: The sciatic nerve is a primary concern during dorsal approaches to the ilium and acetabulum, coursing dorsal to the ilium and caudal to the acetabulum. The cranial gluteal artery, vein, and nerve traverse the greater sciatic notch, and the deep gluteal artery and vein are located over the craniodorsal joint capsule.
• Biomechanical Principles and Fixation: The pelvic ring functions as a three-dimensional structure; restoration of the pelvic canal diameter is critical, especially for breeding females and animals with cauda equina compression. The ilial body is the primary weight-bearing column, and anatomical reduction of the acetabulum is paramount to prevent degenerative joint disease.
• Surgical Approaches and Patient Positioning: Patient positioning is dictated by the fracture location and required exposure; lateral recumbency with the affected side up is common for ilial and dorsal acetabular approaches, while dorsal or sternal recumbency with hindlimb flexion/abduction is used for ischial exposures.
• Implant Placement Constraints and Complications: Acetabular screws must remain within the cranial and caudal bone columns, and intra-articular penetration is a recognized failure mode. Iatrogenic sciatic nerve injury is a significant complication, and implant loosening or loss of reduction can lead to progressive lameness.
• Surgical Decision-Making and Referral Criteria: The choice of approach is based on fracture configuration, surgeon familiarity, and the need for concurrent exposure. Referral to a boarded surgeon is indicated for complex acetabular fractures, sacroiliac luxations, bilateral pelvic fractures with neurologic deficits, or when anatomic reduction cannot be achieved.

This article details the surgical approaches used to expose the ilium, ischium, and acetabulum in dogs and cats for fracture repair and pelvic osteotomies. It is written for the practicing veterinarian who performs or plans orthopedic procedures and needs a working knowledge of exposure options, patient positioning, and implant placement constraints. The content assumes familiarity with standard surgical instrumentation and tissue handling. The focus is procedural: how to choose an approach, how to position the patient, and how to protect neurovascular structures during exposure.

Pelvic fractures account for a substantial proportion of fractures in small animal trauma patients. The pelvic ring distributes weight from the axial skeleton to the hindlimbs, and disruption of this ring alters load transfer and can compromise the pelvic canal. Surgical decision-making begins with imaging. High-quality orthogonal radiographs remain the first-line assessment for most pelvic fractures, but computed tomography (CT) adds sensitivity where fracture complexity increases, particularly for acetabular and sacral fractures. In a prospective study of 25 canine and feline pelvic fracture cases, three diplomat orthopedic surgeons found that management plans did not differ significantly between radiographic and CT analysis, yet CT was the most sensitive modality for complex fractures such as those involving the acetabulum and sacrum. The same study noted that clinically high-quality radiography should be recommended for all pelvic fracture cases, with CT reserved for cases where uncertainty persists. A separate evaluation of 2D-CT versus 3D-CT reconstructions in dogs found that 3D-CT was more time-efficient for evaluation by radiologists, surgeons, and students, but 2D-CT was more accurate for fracture assessment in the experienced groups. The practical conclusion is that 2D-CT remains the reference for surgical planning, with 3D reconstructions serving as an adjunct for spatial orientation.

At a Glance

Applied Surgical Anatomy

The pelvis is composed of three paired bones: ilium, ischium, and pubis, which fuse at the acetabulum. The ilium has a wing cranially and a body caudally that forms the cranial half of the acetabulum. The ischium forms the caudal acetabular wall and the caudal pelvic floor. The pubis completes the ventral pelvic floor and contributes to the medial acetabular wall. The sacroiliac joint connects the ilial wings to the sacrum and is a common site of injury in pelvic trauma.

The sciatic nerve exits the pelvic canal through the greater sciatic notch, passes dorsal to the body of the ilium, and continues caudally over the external obturator and quadratus femoris muscles. It lies directly in the surgical field for dorsal approaches to the ilium and acetabulum. The cranial gluteal artery, vein, and nerve pass through the greater sciatic notch and supply the gluteal muscles. The deep gluteal artery and vein course over the craniodorsal aspect of the joint capsule. The obturator nerve runs on the medial surface of the ilial body and is at risk during medial approaches. The pudendal nerve and internal pudendal vessels lie on the pelvic floor and are vulnerable during ischial and pubic exposure.

Biomechanical Principles of Pelvic Ring Repair

The pelvic ring behaves as a three-dimensional structure. A single break in the ring often occurs with a second, sometimes minimally displaced, break elsewhere. Restoration of the pelvic canal diameter is critical, particularly in breeding females and in animals with neurologic deficits referable to cauda equina compression. The ilial body is the primary weight-bearing column, and its reconstruction is the priority in most pelvic fractures. The acetabulum must be reduced anatomically to prevent degenerative joint disease, and the dorsal acetabular rim is the principal weight-bearing surface. The ischium contributes less to weight bearing but must be aligned to restore the pelvic floor and to provide a stable anchor for the internal obturator and external obturator muscles.

Fixation strategies follow from these biomechanical priorities. Ilium fractures are typically repaired with bone plates applied to the lateral surface, with screws placed in the ilial wing and body. Acetabular fractures require plates contoured to the dorsal surface of the acetabulum, with screws placed in the cranial and caudal bone columns. Ischial fractures may be repaired with plates or screws, but many are managed conservatively if the pelvic floor is not compromised. The choice of approach must provide access to the bone surface that will accept the implant, and it must do so without excessive dissection of the gluteal musculature or retraction of the sciatic nerve.

Imaging and Surgical Planning

Preoperative imaging determines the approach. Radiographs in ventrodorsal and lateral projections identify most fractures, but the sensitivity for detecting all fracture lines improves with CT. The study by Draffan and colleagues found that observer agreement on fracture description was moderate between radiographs and CT, and the greatest discrepancy occurred as fracture complexity increased. For acetabular fractures, CT was the most sensitive modality. The authors concluded that CT may be beneficial where there is uncertainty, particularly with acetabular fractures. The study by Stieger-Vanegas and colleagues adds that 2D-CT is the more accurate technique for evaluating sacral and pelvic fractures in experienced evaluators, while 3D-CT offers faster evaluation and improved spatial understanding. For surgical planning, the surgeon should review 2D-CT images in bone windows and use 3D reconstructions to confirm the spatial relationship of fragments.

The imaging assessment must also evaluate the sacroiliac joints, the coxofemoral joints, and the pelvic canal. Sacroiliac luxation is commonly associated with ilial fractures and may require separate screw fixation. Acetabular fractures may be accompanied by coxofemoral luxation, which must be reduced before or during fracture repair. The pelvic canal should be assessed for narrowing, which can cause obstipation or dystocia. These findings influence the surgical plan and the choice of approach.

Patient Positioning and Preparation

Positioning is dictated by the approach and by the need to access multiple sites. For lateral approaches to the ilium and dorsal acetabulum, the patient is placed in lateral recumbency with the affected side up. The hindlimb is draped free to allow manipulation during the approach. For approaches to the ischium, the patient may be placed in dorsal recumbency with the hindlimbs flexed and abducted, or in sternal recumbency with the tail elevated and secured. The choice depends on whether concurrent procedures on the contralateral hemipelvis are planned. A vacuum-positioned beanbag or sandbags stabilize the patient, and a towel clamp or suture secures the tail out of the field.

The surgical site is clipped widely, from the dorsal midline to the ventral midline and from the cranial lumbar region to the mid-femur. Aseptic preparation includes the pelvic region and the hindlimb on the affected side. The surgeon should palpate bony landmarks before draping: the iliac crest, the greater trochanter, the ischial tuberosity, and the sacral tuberosity. These landmarks guide the skin incision and the deeper dissection.

Approach Selection by Fracture Location

The choice of surgical approach is dictated by the fracture configuration, the need for concurrent exposure of adjacent structures, and the surgeon's familiarity with the approach. Table 1 summarizes the standard approaches and their primary indications.

Table 1. Approach selection by fracture location

The lateral approach to the ilium provides access to the lateral surface of the iliac wing and body from the sacroiliac joint to the acetabulum. This approach is the workhorse for iliac fracture repair and allows placement of plates on the lateral surface. The dorsal approach to the ilium and acetabulum extends the exposure cranially and caudally, permitting simultaneous management of iliac and acetabular fractures. The approach with osteotomy of the greater trochanter is reserved for fractures of the caudal acetabulum where the joint surface must be visualized directly for accurate reduction.

Lateral Approach to the Ilium

Position the patient in lateral recumbency with the affected limb uppermost. The limb is draped free to allow manipulation during reduction. The incision begins at the cranial aspect of the iliac crest and extends caudally along the cranial border of the femur to the level of the greater trochanter.

The subcutaneous tissues are incised in the same line. The fascia lata is incised along its cranial border, and the incision is extended cranially to expose the tensor fasciae latae muscle. The tensor fasciae latae is retracted caudally, exposing the lateral surface of the iliac wing and the origin of the deep gluteal muscle. The deep gluteal muscle is elevated subperiosteally from the lateral surface of the ilium using a periosteal elevator. The elevation is continued caudally to expose the body of the ilium and the cranial rim of the acetabulum.

The sciatic nerve is identified caudal to the ilium and protected throughout the procedure. The cranial gluteal artery and vein cross the dorsal border of the ilium and must be preserved. Retraction of the deep gluteal muscle exposes the lateral surface of the ilium for plate application.

For plate placement, contour the plate to the lateral surface of the ilium. The plate is applied with the screws engaging the medial cortex. The most cranial screw should engage the iliac wing where the bone is thickest. The most caudal screw should engage the body of the ilium just cranial to the acetabulum. Care is taken to avoid penetration of the acetabular joint surface with the caudal screws.

Dorsal Approach to the Ilium and Acetabulum

The patient is positioned in lateral recumbency. The incision begins at the cranial aspect of the iliac crest and extends caudally over the greater trochanter, curving distally along the cranial border of the femur. The subcutaneous tissues are reflected to expose the fascia lata and the gluteal muscles.

The fascia lata is incised along its cranial border. The middle gluteal muscle is elevated subperiosteally from the dorsal border of the ilium. The deep gluteal muscle is reflected laterally to expose the lateral surface of the ilium and the dorsal rim of the acetabulum. The sciatic nerve is identified and protected as it passes caudal to the acetabulum.

This approach provides excellent exposure of the dorsal acetabular rim and the body of the ilium. It is particularly useful for fractures that extend from the iliac body into the cranial acetabulum. The approach can be combined with an osteotomy of the greater trochanter to improve access to the caudal acetabulum.

Approach with Osteotomy of the Greater Trochanter

Position the patient in lateral recumbency. The incision extends from the cranial aspect of the iliac crest to the mid-femur, curving over the greater trochanter. The subcutaneous tissues are reflected. The fascia lata is incised along its cranial border, and the incision is extended proximally to expose the gluteal muscles.

The greater trochanter is osteotomised using an oscillating saw or osteotome. The osteotomy is performed from cranial to caudal, preserving the insertion of the middle and deep gluteal muscles on the trochanteric fragment. The gluteal muscles are reflected craniodorsally with the trochanteric fragment, exposing the dorsal and caudal aspects of the acetabulum.

The sciatic nerve is identified caudal to the acetabulum and protected. The joint capsule is incised to expose the acetabular joint surface. The caudal third of the acetabulum is visualized directly, allowing accurate reduction of articular fractures.

At closure, the trochanteric fragment is reattached using two Kirschner wires or a tension band wire. The tension band converts the distractive forces of the gluteal muscles into compressive forces across the osteotomy. The fascia lata and subcutaneous tissues are closed routinely.

This approach is indicated for fractures of the caudal acetabulum where the joint surface must be visualized for accurate reduction. It is also useful for fractures that extend from the acetabulum into the ischium. The osteotomy heals reliably when rigid fixation is achieved.

Caudal Approach to the Ischium

The patient is positioned in lateral recumbency with the affected limb flexed and abducted. The incision begins at the ischial tuberosity and extends cranially along the ventral border of the ischium. The subcutaneous tissues are incised in the same line.

The internal obturator muscle is elevated subperiosteally from the ventral surface of the ischium. The sciatic nerve is identified dorsally and protected. The ischial body and ramus are exposed for fracture repair.

This approach provides limited exposure and is used primarily for isolated ischial fractures or for access to the caudal acetabulum in combination with other approaches. The approach is rarely used alone for acetabular fractures because the exposure of the joint surface is inadequate.

Approach to the Sacroiliac Joint

The patient is positioned in lateral recumbency with the affected side uppermost. The incision begins at the cranial aspect of the iliac crest and extends caudally along the dorsal border of the ilium. The subcutaneous tissues are reflected.

The middle gluteal muscle is elevated subperiosteally from the dorsal border of the ilium. The elevation is continued medially to expose the sacroiliac joint. The joint is identified by the articulation between the sacral wing and the iliac wing. The fracture-luxation is reduced by manipulating the ilium relative to the sacrum.

Fixation is achieved with a lag screw placed from the lateral surface of the ilium into the body of the sacrum. The screw is directed perpendicular to the sacroiliac joint surface. The sacral body is narrow, and the screw must be placed accurately to avoid penetration of the spinal canal or the lumbosacral nerve roots.

Pre-operative computed tomography is valuable for planning screw placement in sacroiliac luxations. Three-dimensional reconstructions improve the surgeon's understanding of the fracture configuration and the displacement, particularly for complex injuries involving the sacrum and acetabulum. Computed tomography is also useful when radiographs are equivocal, particularly for acetabular fractures where the complexity of the injury may be underestimated.

Decision Points and Monitoring

The decision to use a particular approach is influenced by the fracture configuration, the patient's size, and the surgeon's experience. For simple iliac fractures, the lateral approach is sufficient. For fractures involving the acetabulum, the dorsal approach with or without trochanteric osteotomy provides the necessary exposure.

Intra-operative monitoring includes assessment of the sciatic nerve function before closure. The nerve is visualized and palpated to ensure it is not entrapped by implants or bone fragments. Post-operative monitoring includes assessment of sciatic nerve function, which is evaluated by observing the patient's ability to bear weight and by testing the withdrawal reflex and conscious proprioception in the affected limb.

Radiographic assessment is performed immediately post-operatively to evaluate fracture reduction and implant placement. Follow-up radiographs are obtained at 4 to 6 weeks and again at 8 to 12 weeks to assess healing. The progression of healing is monitored by the presence of bridging callus and the absence of implant loosening.

The evidence base for the superiority of one approach over another is limited. The choice of approach is guided by the fracture configuration and the surgeon's preference instead of by comparative outcome data. The surgeon should select the approach that provides the most direct access to the fracture with the least disruption of surrounding soft tissues.

Complications and Failure Modes

Pelvic fracture repair fails through predictable mechanisms. Implant loosening, loss of reduction, iatrogenic nerve injury, and delayed union dominate the list. Early detection depends on a disciplined postoperative protocol.

Implant loosening appears as progressive lameness after an initial improvement phase. Palpable crepitus over the implant site, pain on pelvic manipulation, or a sudden return of non-weight-bearing lameness should trigger radiographs. Compare immediate postoperative films with follow-up studies at 4 and 8 weeks. Loss of reduction is confirmed when the acetabular articular surface step exceeds 2 mm or when the pelvic canal diameter narrows by more than 10% compared with the immediate postoperative measurement.

Iatrogenic sciatic nerve injury is the most consequential neurologic complication. The nerve courses dorsal to the acetabulum and is vulnerable during dorsal approaches and trochanteric osteotomy. Postoperative assessment should include conscious proprioception, withdrawal reflex, and deep pain perception in the affected limb within 12 hours of recovery. A dog that cannot bear weight but withdraws normally may simply be painful. A dog with absent withdrawal and absent deep pain requires immediate surgical exploration if the deficit was not present before surgery.

Delayed union and nonunion occur most often at the ischium and caudal ilium, where the soft tissue envelope is thin and blood supply is marginal. Serial radiographs at 8 and 12 weeks should show progressive bridging callus. Lack of progression between studies, persistent lucency at the fracture line, or implant fatigue failure indicates nonunion.

Common Errors and Corrective Action

The most frequent error in pelvic fracture repair is inadequate exposure. Surgeons who attempt acetabular fixation through a limited lateral approach struggle to visualize the dorsal acetabular rim and place screws in the cranial and caudal fragments without violating the joint. The corrective action is to extend the approach or perform a trochanteric osteotomy whenever the dorsal rim cannot be seen directly.

A second error is failure to contour plates to the ilium before screw placement. The ilium has a curved dorsal surface, and a straight plate applied under compression will distract the ventral cortex. Contour the plate to the bone surface before drilling any holes. Check the contour by placing the plate on the bone and observing for gaps at either end.

A third error is placing acetabular screws too long. Screws that penetrate the medial cortex of the acetabulum enter the pelvic canal and can injure the obturator nerve or the internal iliac vessels. Measure screw depth with a depth gauge and confirm with intraoperative imaging when available. For the acetabular portion of a plate, screws should engage the bone dorsal to the joint but should not protrude beyond the medial cortex by more than 1 mm.

Students and less experienced surgeons also tend to underestimate the importance of the ischium in pelvic ring stability. Leaving a displaced ischial fracture unrepaired allows the caudal pelvis to collapse medially, narrowing the pelvic canal and predisposing to obstipation. If the ischium cannot be plated, consider a transilial screw or a sacroiliac lag screw to restore dorsal weight-bearing continuity.

Limitations of the Evidence

The evidence base for pelvic fracture management in small animals rests largely on retrospective case series and expert opinion. Prospective comparative studies are scarce. Computed tomography improves fracture classification and detection of complex acetabular and sacral fractures, but its influence on management decisions and outcome remains uncertain. In one prospective study of 25 canine and feline pelvic fracture cases, CT did not significantly change the management plan compared with high-quality radiography, although it was most sensitive for complex acetabular and sacral fractures The role of computed tomography in the classification and management of pelvic fractures.

Three-dimensional CT reconstructions are more time-efficient for evaluating pelvic trauma than 2D-CT, but 2D-CT is more accurate for fracture characterization when interpreted by radiologists and orthopedic surgeons Evaluation of the Diagnostic Accuracy of Conventional 2-Dimensional and 3-Dimensional Computed Tomography for Assessing Canine Sacral and Pelvic Fractures by Radiologists, Orthopedic Surgeons, and Veterinary Medical Students. The practical implication is that 3D reconstructions should supplement, not replace, careful review of the 2D dataset.

Expert opinion still differs on several points. Whether the ischium requires routine fixation when the ilium and acetabulum are repaired remains contested. Some surgeons argue that ischial repair is unnecessary if the dorsal weight-bearing column is restored. Others maintain that unrepaired ischial fractures lead to pelvic canal stenosis and obstipation. The available evidence does not resolve this question. Similarly, the role of minimally invasive techniques for ilial fractures is expanding, but comparative outcome data against open reduction and internal fixation are limited.

Referral and Escalation

Referral to a boarded surgeon is appropriate when the surgeon cannot achieve anatomic reduction of the acetabular surface, when the fracture extends into the sacroiliac joint, or when the patient has sustained bilateral pelvic fractures with concurrent neurologic deficits. Acetabular fractures in cats present particular difficulty because of the small bone stock available for screw purchase.

Specialist consultation is also warranted when a patient develops progressive neurologic signs after surgery, when implant failure occurs within the first 4 weeks, or when a nonunion is identified at 12 weeks. These situations often require revision surgery with different implant strategies, such as a plate applied to the tension band surface or a bone graft.

Laboratory involvement is indicated when delayed union is suspected and metabolic bone disease is a consideration. Serum calcium, phosphorus, parathyroid hormone, and vitamin D concentrations should be assessed in patients with poor bone quality or unexplained delayed healing. The American College of Veterinary Surgeons provides resources on expected outcomes and postoperative management that may guide discussions with owners American College of Veterinary Surgeons Animal Health Resources.

Regulatory reporting is rarely required for pelvic fracture repair. It becomes relevant when the injury is suspected to result from non-accidental injury, when the patient is a production animal subject to food safety withdrawal requirements, or when the case falls under jurisdiction-specific reporting obligations for animal cruelty. The American Veterinary Medical Association publishes practice resources that address these obligations American Veterinary Medical Association Practice Resources. Where international movement of an animal is anticipated, the World Organization for Animal Health terrestrial standards may apply WOAH terrestrial animal health standards.

Frequently Asked Questions

When is computed tomography indicated over standard radiography for pelvic fracture assessment?

Standard orthogonal radiography remains the primary screening tool for pelvic trauma. Computed tomography (CT) is indicated when radiographic findings are ambiguous, particularly for acetabular and sacral fractures, where fracture complexity increases the risk of misclassification. In a prospective study of 25 canine and feline pelvic fracture cases, management plans did not differ significantly between radiographic and CT assessment, but CT proved most sensitive for complex acetabular and sacral injuries (CT in the classification and management of pelvic fractures). Three-dimensional reconstructions improve time efficiency for evaluation but are less accurate than 2D-CT alone for fracture characterization, so use 3D reconstructions as an adjunct instead of a replacement (2D versus 3D CT for canine sacral and pelvic fractures).

What can be done when dedicated orthopedic equipment is unavailable?

Standard general surgery sets can manage many ilial and ischial fractures. Use pointed reduction forceps, Kirschner wires for temporary stabilization, and cerclage wire where plate application is impossible. For acetabular fractures, however, a plate and screws remain the standard of care, and attempting repair without appropriate implants risks iatrogenic articular damage. If the required plate or screw sizes are unavailable, consider external skeletal fixation for ilial body fractures or referral. The American College of Veterinary Surgeons maintains resources on expected outcomes and procedural considerations that can guide decision-making when resources are constrained (ACVS surgical resources). Do not compromise on articular reconstruction, a malreduced acetabulum has poor long-term function.

How does the surgical approach differ in cats compared with dogs?

Feline pelvic anatomy is proportionally similar but smaller, which magnifies the consequences of implant selection error. A 2.0 mm plate used in a medium dog may be too large for a cat's ilial wing, and screw purchase in the acetabular fragment is often limited to one or two screws. The dorsal approach to the ilium and acetabulum provides adequate exposure in most cats without trochanteric osteotomy, preserving the gluteal musculature. When trochanteric osteotomy is required, repair with two Kirschner wires or a tension band is reliable. Feline bone heals faster than canine bone, but implant failure occurs earlier if the plate is undersized. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides species-specific guidance on fracture fixation principles and postoperative expectations (MSD Veterinary Manual).

What documentation is required for pelvic fracture repair cases?

Record the preoperative imaging findings, including fracture classification, displacement measurements, and any CT findings that altered the plan. Document the surgical approach used, implants placed with sizes and positions, and intraoperative complications. Postoperative radiographs must be described and stored. For outcome tracking, record serial examinations, weight-bearing status, and any neurologic deficits. The American Veterinary Medical Association provides practice resources on medical record standards and client communication expectations (AVMA practice resources). Accurate records also support retrospective evaluation of your own complication rates, which is valuable when deciding whether to refer future complex acetabular cases.

How should I explain the need for surgery and the risks to an owner?

Use plain language that distinguishes stabilization from cure. Explain that the pelvis is a ring structure, and a fracture in one location is often accompanied by injury elsewhere, including the sacroiliac joint or the opposite hemipelvis. Describe the goal of surgery as restoring alignment so the animal can bear weight comfortably and avoid long-term arthritis. Mention that some pelvic fractures can be managed conservatively, but displaced acetabular fractures and those causing narrowing of the pelvic canal warrant surgery. The American College of Veterinary Surgeons provides client-oriented summaries of surgical conditions and expected outcomes that can supplement your discussion (ACVS animal health resources). Be explicit about the risk of sciatic nerve injury and the possibility of persistent lameness.

When should I refer a pelvic fracture case instead of attempt repair?

Refer when the fracture involves the acetabulum and you lack the implants or experience to achieve anatomic reduction, when the patient has concurrent sacroiliac luxation requiring stabilization, or when neurologic deficits suggest sciatic or lumbosacral injury. Refer also when imaging is inadequate to characterize the fracture, since CT may be necessary for complex patterns (CT in the classification and management of pelvic fractures). If the patient is unstable from concurrent trauma, stabilize the patient first and refer once cardiovascular status permits anesthesia. Early referral is preferable to a delayed salvage procedure after a failed primary repair.

Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

• Perioperative Antibiotic Prophylaxis: Timing and Selection
• Surgical Approaches to the Femur and Stifle
• Fracture Healing Assessment: Radiographic and Clinical Evaluation

References and Further Reading

• The role of computed tomography in the classification and management of pelvic fractures.. 2009.
• Restricting Lower Limb Flail is Key to Preventing Fatal Pelvic Blast Injury.. 2019.
• Rectal prolapse associated with a healed pelvic fracture in a pregnant free-ranging African black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). Part 1: anesthesia.. 2001.
• Evaluation of the Diagnostic Accuracy of Conventional 2-Dimensional and 3-Dimensional Computed Tomography for Assessing Canine Sacral and Pelvic Fractures by Radiologists, Orthopedic Surgeons, and Veterinary Medical Students.. 2015.
• American College of Veterinary Surgeons Animal Health Resources. American College of Veterinary Surgeons.
• MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition. MSD Veterinary Manual.
• American Veterinary Medical Association Practice Resources. American Veterinary Medical Association.
• WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code. WOAH.

Related Articles

• Surgical Approaches to the Femur and Stifle
• Surgical Approaches to the Humerus and Elbow
• Surgical Approaches to the Scapula and Shoulder
• Surgical Approaches to the Mandible and Maxilla
• Surgical Approaches to the Long Bones: Radius and Tibia

This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.