Monitoring Sedation and Anesthesia Recovery in Veterinary Patients

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-08-11

Key Takeaways

• Anesthetic recovery is a period of high physiologic lability due to the differential redistribution, metabolism, and excretion of anesthetic agents, leading to rapid changes in airway patency, thermoregulation, cardiovascular performance, and protective reflexes.
• Continuous monitoring of airway patency and breathing pattern, pulse oximetry (SpO2), end-tidal CO2 (if intubated), heart rate and rhythm, body temperature, mucous membrane color, capillary refill time, and depth of sedation/reflex return are critical for early detection of complications.
• Hypothermia significantly prolongs recovery by slowing drug metabolism, impairing coagulation, and increasing oxygen demand, necessitating active warming when temperatures fall below species-specific reference ranges (e.g., <36.5°C in dogs and cats).
• Cardiovascular assessment requires evaluating pulse quality alongside heart rate, as weak pulses with normal heart rate can indicate hypovolemia or vasoconstriction, and blood pressure monitoring is indicated in high-risk patients.
• Respiratory monitoring should include capnography for sensitive ventilation assessment in intubated patients, as pulse oximetry can be misleading in patients receiving supplemental oxygen or experiencing severe vasoconstriction.
• Structured recovery scoring systems, applied at fixed intervals, provide objective assessment of consciousness, posture, ambulation, cardiovascular stability, and thermoregulation, guiding decisions for intervention and discharge.

The recovery period is the phase of anesthesia during which the patient transitions from unconsciousness toward a fully awake, ambulatory state. It is also the period of highest physiologic lability. Airway patency, thermoregulation, cardiovascular performance, and protective reflexes all change rapidly as anesthetic drugs redistribute, are metabolized, and are excreted. This article provides a structured framework for monitoring sedation and anesthesia recovery across species, with emphasis on the parameters that predict complications and the decision criteria that guide intervention.

The intended reader is the veterinary student or early-career practitioner who has mastered basic anesthetic delivery and now needs a systematic approach to the recovery phase. The article answers three clinical questions: what to monitor, how often, and what findings mandate action. It covers the physiology that underlies recovery-related risk, species-specific considerations for dogs, cats, and selected exotic and production species, and the practical use of monitoring equipment in both hospital and field settings. Specific drug protocols and doses are excluded, the focus is on the monitoring process itself.

At a Glance

Physiologic Basis of Recovery Risk

Anesthetic recovery is not a simple reversal of induction. Drug concentrations decline at different rates, and the neural structures that recover first are not necessarily those that maintain homeostasis. The reticular activating system regains function before brainstem respiratory centers fully restore their sensitivity to carbon dioxide. This temporal mismatch explains why a patient may appear awake yet hypoventilate. The same principle applies to thermoregulation. Anesthetic agents depress the hypothalamic set point, and during recovery the set point normalizes while the patient remains vasodilated and unable to shiver effectively until muscle tone returns.

The cardiovascular system faces a similar challenge. Residual vasodilation from inhalant anesthetics persists after the patient begins to move. Venous return is further compromised when a recumbent patient is positioned in sternal recumbency before it can maintain that posture independently. The combination of residual vasodilation, reduced venous return, and awakening sympathetic stimulation can produce wide swings in blood pressure. These swings are most dangerous in patients with preexisting cardiac disease or hypovolemia.

Hypothermia deserves particular emphasis because it compounds every other risk. Cold patients have reduced drug metabolism, prolonged recovery, impaired coagulation, and increased oxygen consumption as they attempt to rewarm. The shivering that accompanies rewarming can double oxygen demand at a time when respiratory drive is still depressed. Monitoring temperature must therefore begin during the procedure, not after extubation. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides species-specific reference ranges for normal temperature and guidance on the physiologic consequences of deviation from those ranges.

Depth of Sedation and Arousal Assessment

Assessment of arousal requires a graded approach that distinguishes sedation depth from anesthesia depth. In a sedated patient, the animal responds to noxious stimuli but not to environmental stimuli. In an anesthetized patient, both are absent. During recovery, the sequence of reflex return follows a predictable order, but the timing varies with drug class, dose, and species. Palpebral reflexes return before laryngeal reflexes. Swallowing precedes coughing. Purposeful movement of the limbs precedes the ability to maintain sternal recumbency.

The clinician should record the time at which each reflex returns. A patient that regains palpebral reflexes but remains laterally recumbent for more than 30 minutes without progression warrants investigation. Possible causes include residual opioid effects, hypothermia, hypoglycemia, or an undetected intracranial event. Serial assessment also distinguishes normal recovery from emergence delirium, which is characterized by disorientation, vocalization, and uncoordinated movement that does not progress toward coordinated ambulation.

In field settings, the same principles apply but the monitoring interval must be adapted to the environment. The best-practice guidelines for field-based anesthesia of free-ranging wildlife emphasize that recovery monitoring in wildlife must account for the animal's need to regain sufficient coordination to avoid predation or injury upon release. The observer must balance the need for complete recovery against the stress of prolonged human proximity, which can itself delay recovery or cause hyperthermia.

Cardiovascular Monitoring During Recovery

Heart rate and rhythm are the minimum cardiovascular parameters during recovery. Pulse quality should be assessed simultaneously, because heart rate alone does not indicate perfusion. A patient with a normal heart rate but weak femoral pulses may be vasoconstricted, hypovolemic, or in low cardiac output states. Capillary refill time and mucous membrane color provide a rapid assessment of peripheral perfusion that requires no equipment.

Blood pressure measurement is indicated in patients with known cardiac disease, in patients that received vasoactive drugs, and in any patient whose recovery is prolonged beyond the expected duration. Both Doppler and oscillometric methods are acceptable, but the clinician must recognize that oscillometric devices underestimate blood pressure in small patients and during hypotension. The trend matters more than any single reading. A falling blood pressure despite a rising heart rate suggests decompensation and requires immediate evaluation for hemorrhage, hypovolemia, or residual myocardial depression.

Arrhythmias during recovery are common and often benign. Sinus bradycardia may reflect residual opioid effect or high vagal tone. Ventricular premature complexes in a patient that is hypoxic, hypercapnic, or hypothermic should resolve with correction of the underlying abnormality. Persistent arrhythmias in a normothermic, well-oxygenated patient warrant electrocardiography and a search for structural or metabolic causes.

Respiratory Monitoring and Airway Management

Respiratory monitoring begins with observation of the thoracic wall and the reservoir bag if the patient remains intubated. The rate, depth, and pattern of breathing are recorded, and any change from the baseline pattern is investigated. Apneustic breathing, Cheyne-Stokes respiration, or an irregular pattern suggests brainstem dysfunction and warrants immediate assessment of oxygenation and ventilation.

Pulse oximetry provides continuous assessment of hemoglobin saturation but has important limitations. It does not detect hypoventilation in a patient receiving supplemental oxygen, because the SpO2 remains near 100% despite rising carbon dioxide. It also fails during severe vasoconstriction or hypothermia, when peripheral perfusion is inadequate to produce a reliable waveform. The clinician must therefore interpret SpO2 in the context of the patient's perfusion status and the fraction of inspired oxygen.

Capnography, when available, is the most sensitive monitor of ventilation in the intubated patient. It provides a continuous waveform and a numeric end-tidal carbon dioxide value. The waveform shape carries diagnostic information. A sloping plateau suggests partial airway obstruction. A sudden drop to near zero indicates disconnection, esophageal intubation, or cardiac arrest. The enhanced neuromuscular blockade recovery protocol described in thyroid neural monitoring surgery demonstrates the value of quantitative train-of-four monitoring for ensuring that respiratory muscle function has returned before extubation. The same principle applies in veterinary patients when neuromuscular blocking agents have been used.

Temperature Regulation and Recovery Duration

Temperature monitoring should be continuous during recovery until the patient is normothermic and actively maintaining its own temperature. The route of measurement matters. Rectal temperature lags behind core temperature during rapid warming or cooling. Esophageal temperature probes, when available, provide a closer approximation of core temperature in intubated patients. Aural thermometers are unreliable in small patients and should not be used as the sole method.

The relationship between temperature and recovery duration is bidirectional. Hypothermia prolongs recovery by slowing drug metabolism and reducing hepatic and renal clearance. Prolonged recovery, in turn, increases the duration of exposure to cold, creating a self-perpetuating cycle. Active warming should begin when the temperature falls below the normal range for the species, not when the patient is already severely hypothermic. Forced-air warming blankets are the most effective method in hospital settings. In field settings, the shelter medicine anesthesia review notes that recovery cages with supplemental heat sources and insulation are essential, particularly for pediatric, geriatric, and thin-bodied patients.

Hyperthermia during recovery is less common but equally dangerous. It occurs most often in heavily muscled breeds, in patients recovering from prolonged procedures under warm surgical drapes, and in wildlife that struggle during recovery. Malignant hyperthermia is rare but must be considered when temperature rises rapidly in a patient receiving inhalant anesthesia. The distinction between exertional hyperthermia from struggling and malignant hyperthermia rests on the rate of rise, the presence of muscle rigidity, and the response to removing the triggering agent.

Recovery Stage Scoring and Discharge Criteria

Structured recovery scoring reduces inter-observer variability and provides an objective basis for discharge decisions. A simple ordinal scale applied at fixed intervals, typically every 10 to 15 minutes during early recovery and every 30 minutes thereafter, allows trend recognition that a single examination cannot provide. Each domain, including consciousness, posture, ambulation, cardiovascular stability, and thermoregulation, receives a numeric score. The total score triggers specific interventions instead of subjective impressions.

The recovery period divides into three operational stages. Stage one begins at cessation of anesthetic delivery and ends with the return of swallowing and palpebral reflexes. Stage two extends from reflex return to sternal recumbency. Stage three concludes when the patient can maintain ambulation appropriate to species and signalment. Each stage carries distinct failure modes. Stage one risks airway obstruction and hypoventilation. Stage two risks self-trauma and emergence delirium. Stage three risks falls, exhaustion, and delayed complications such as hypothermia or hypotension.

Discharge criteria should be explicit and written into the anesthetic record. A patient leaves active monitoring only when all of the following are satisfied: stable core temperature within the reference range for species, heart rate and respiratory rate within expected limits for the recovery stage, ability to maintain sternal or upright posture without support, and absence of clinically significant pain or dysphoria. For hospitalized patients, transfer to the ward requires the same criteria, also a time elapsed since extubation.

Neuromuscular Blockade Reversal and Monitoring

Patients receiving neuromuscular blocking agents require quantitative monitoring of recovery before extubation or cessation of ventilatory support. Train-of-four (TOF) ratio measurement provides the standard assessment. A TOF ratio of 0.9 or greater indicates sufficient recovery of neuromuscular transmission for safe spontaneous ventilation and airway protection. Clinical judgment alone, including assessment of head lift or grip strength, underestimates residual blockade and should not replace quantitative monitoring.

The choice of reversal strategy alters the recovery timeline. Sugammadex, a selective relaxant binding agent, produces rapid and complete reversal of rocuronium-induced blockade, restoring TOF ratio from zero to above 0.9 within minutes in experimental and clinical settings. This rapid reversal permits optimization of intraoperative neural monitoring and shortens the interval during which the patient requires ventilatory support. Neostigmine-based reversal requires more time and carries the risk of incomplete reversal if administered before sufficient spontaneous recovery has occurred. The clinician must confirm the agent used, the dose administered, and the time of administration on the anesthetic record so that recovery expectations match the pharmacology.

Pain and Dysphoria Assessment in Recovery

Differentiating pain from emergence delirium or residual sedation determines the correct intervention. Pain behaviors in recovery include vocalization, restlessness, guarding of the surgical site, tachycardia, hypertension, and reluctance to move. Emergence delirium presents with uncoordinated thrashing, disorientation, and vocalization that does not consistently localize to a surgical site. Residual sedation presents with depressed responsiveness, slow reflexes, and quiet recumbency.

Serial assessment using a validated pain scale appropriate to the species and procedure provides structure. A patient with escalating pain scores requires analgesic intervention before discharge from the recovery area. A patient with delirium may require a quiet environment, minimal handling, and in some cases a low dose of a sedative to prevent self-trauma. The distinction matters because administering additional opioid to a delirious patient can worsen excitation, while withholding analgesia from a painful patient prolongs distress and delays recovery.

Salivary cortisol measurement has been investigated as a low-invasive biomarker of stress in laboratory rodents, with salivary levels reflecting plasma levels under restraint conditions. However, this technique remains a research tool instead of a clinical monitoring standard. Recovery of salivary corticosterone responses to stress may require up to seven days after anesthesia in mice, which limits its utility for immediate post-anesthetic assessment. Clinical pain scoring remains the primary tool.

Monitoring in Shelter and Field Settings

Shelter medicine and wildlife field anesthesia impose constraints that change monitoring priorities. High-volume spay-neuter programs often use injectable protocols with reversal agents to facilitate rapid recovery. The monitoring plan must account for limited personnel, multiple patients recovering simultaneously, and the need to discharge patients to colony or shelter housing. A protocol combining tiletamine-zolazepam with dexmedetomidine and an opioid provides predictable immobilization with available reversal agents, and recovery quality depends on appropriate reversal timing and dose. Reversal of the alpha-2 agonist shortens recovery but may unmask pain if analgesia is not maintained by the remaining components.

Field anesthesia of free-ranging wildlife requires planning for extended recovery in conditions where continuous monitoring is impossible. The operator must establish a minimum monitoring standard before beginning the procedure, including provisions for thermoregulation, airway protection, and predator avoidance during recovery. If the minimum standard of safe anesthesia and effective analgesia cannot be provided, the risk to the patient must be weighed against the value of the data obtained. Recovery in a transport container or protected enclosure may be necessary, and the patient should not be released until it can maintain sternal recumbency and respond to external stimuli.

Documentation and Handoff

The anesthetic recovery record must capture the time course, also the final status. Minimum documentation includes: time of anesthetic agent cessation, extubation time, time to first spontaneous movement, time to sternal recumbency, time to standing or ambulation, and all vital sign measurements with timestamps. Interventions during recovery, including oxygen administration, airway suction, thermal support, fluid boluses, and rescue analgesia, must be recorded with the indication and response.

A structured handoff to ward staff or the next shift requires verbal communication of the recovery trajectory, current status, and specific concerns. The written record alone is insufficient when a patient has exhibited instability during recovery. The receiving clinician must know what complications occurred, what interventions were effective, and what monitoring frequency is expected for the next several hours. Delayed complications, particularly hypothermia and hypotension, can develop after the patient appears stable.

The monitoring frequency table assumes an uncomplicated recovery. Patients with cardiovascular disease, obesity, brachycephalic conformation, hypothermia, or prolonged anesthetic duration require escalation to the next higher monitoring frequency. Equipment availability changes the correct choice of parameters. Capnography and pulse oximetry are standard in hospital settings but may be unavailable in field or shelter contexts, where clinical assessment of mucous membrane color, capillary refill time, and thoracic auscultation substitutes. The monitoring plan must be adapted to the setting, and the limitations of the available equipment must be acknowledged in the record.

Recognized Complications and Early Detection

Recovery from anesthesia carries distinct failure modes that differ from the intraoperative period. Hypothermia is the most common contributor to prolonged recovery. Core temperature below 36.5°C slows hepatic drug metabolism, impairs thermoregulatory shivering, and increases oxygen consumption as the patient attempts to rewarm. Early detection requires continuous temperature monitoring until the patient demonstrates sustained normothermia, also a single reading at extubation.

Hypoventilation in recovery presents with progressive hypercapnia before hypoxemia becomes apparent. Capnography remains the most sensitive bedside tool, but many recovery settings lack continuous sampling. Serial blood gas analysis or venous blood gas assessment provides a practical alternative when capnography is unavailable. A rising end-tidal or venous carbon dioxide with declining respiratory rate warrants immediate airway assessment and ventilatory support.

Airway obstruction after extubation occurs from laryngeal edema, pharyngeal collapse, or residual sedation. Brachycephalic breeds are disproportionately affected. Early signs include stertor, increased respiratory effort with paradoxical abdominal movement, and declining oxygen saturation. Pulse oximetry readings below 94% on room air demand intervention, not continued observation.

Emergence delirium and paradoxical excitation manifest as uncontrolled movement, vocalization, or aggression during lightening of sedation. These behaviors risk self-trauma, suture disruption, and injury to handlers. Distinguishing emergence delirium from pain requires careful observation. Pain-associated agitation typically responds to analgesic administration, whereas delirium may worsen with additional sedation. A patient that is calm when undisturbed but agitated on movement is more likely experiencing pain. A patient that is agitated regardless of stimulation is more likely experiencing delirium.

Post-anesthetic visual impairment, particularly in cats, presents as disorientation, head pressing, or failure to recognize obstacles. This is generally transient but requires protective padding and confinement to prevent injury.

Common Monitoring Errors

Inexperienced monitors frequently equate a normal heart rate with adequate perfusion. Bradycardia in recovery may reflect hypothermia or opioid effect, but tachycardia with weak pulses and prolonged capillary refill time indicates hypovolemia or pain. The discriminating assessment combines heart rate with pulse quality, mucous membrane color, and serial blood pressure measurement.

A second common error is discontinuing monitoring at extubation. The highest risk period for airway obstruction and hypoventilation occurs in the first 30 minutes after extubation. Monitoring should continue until the patient maintains sternal recumbency, normal respiratory rate, and stable temperature.

A third error involves misinterpretation of the recovery scoring system. Scoring tools assess discrete categories, but a patient may score well on movement while remaining hypothermic or hypoxemic. Discharge criteria should require acceptable scores across all categories simultaneously, not a summed total that permits one domain to compensate for another.

A fourth error is failure to account for species differences in normal recovery behavior. Cats may hide signs of pain or dysphoria through immobility, while dogs may pant and pace. Ruminants and horses present additional challenges because recovery to standing carries high risk of musculoskeletal injury. For these species, recovery in a padded stall with manual or mechanical assistance may be required, and monitoring continues until stable standing is achieved.

Troubleshooting Guide

Limitations of Evidence and Areas of Disagreement

The evidence base for recovery monitoring in veterinary patients is largely extrapolated from human anesthesia literature and expert opinion. Controlled trials comparing monitoring protocols in veterinary recovery are scarce. The optimal frequency of vital sign recording during recovery has not been established, and institutional protocols vary widely.

Expert opinion differs on the utility of routine pulse oximetry in recovery. Some argue that oxygen saturation monitoring provides early warning of hypoxemia, while others note that it detects hypoventilation late and may produce false alarms from motion artifact. Capnography is increasingly recommended but remains unavailable in many general practices.

The assessment of pain in recovery is complicated by the overlap between pain behaviors and emergence phenomena. Validated pain scoring tools exist for some species, but their application during the immediate recovery period is less well studied. Salivary cortisol measurement has been investigated as a low-invasive stress biomarker in rodents, with evidence that it reflects plasma levels, but this technique is not yet practical for routine clinical recovery monitoring in companion animals.

Escalation, Referral, and Reporting

Most recovery complications are managed with basic interventions. Escalation is warranted when a patient fails to improve despite corrective action, when vital signs deteriorate progressively, or when a patient does not regain consciousness within a time frame appropriate to the drugs administered. These situations warrant immediate consultation with a specialist in anesthesia or critical care.

Laboratory involvement is indicated when metabolic or electrolyte abnormalities are suspected. Point-of-care glucose, lactate, and blood gas analysis can identify causes of prolonged recovery that are not apparent on physical examination. Advanced imaging may be required when intracranial pathology is suspected, particularly in patients with asymmetric neurologic deficits or seizure activity.

Regulatory reporting obligations vary by jurisdiction. Reportable events include anesthetic deaths, adverse drug reactions, and device failures. The American Veterinary Medical Association practice resources provide guidance on professional responsibilities, while WOAH terrestrial animal health standards address reporting requirements relevant to production animals and notifiable diseases. Veterinarians should be familiar with the requirements of their own jurisdiction. In shelter and field settings, where resources are limited, the decision to transport a patient to a referral facility must balance the risks of movement against the benefits of advanced care, as described in best-practice guidelines for field anesthesia of free-ranging wildlife.

Frequently Asked Questions

How Do I Monitor Recovery When Only Basic Equipment Is Available?

When pulse oximetry, capnography, or multiparameter monitors are unavailable, structured physical assessment substitutes for electronic monitoring. Measure heart rate by auscultation or palpation, respiratory rate by observing thoracic excursions, and pulse quality by femoral or lingual palpation. Assess mucous membrane color and capillary refill time every five minutes during early recovery. Use a simple sedation score to track arousal trends instead of isolated observations. In shelter and field settings, protocols must account for limited monitoring capacity while maintaining defined safety checks, as described in shelter anesthesia monitoring guidance. Document each parameter manually at scheduled intervals. A trend recorded on paper is more useful than an unrecorded impression.

When Should I Extend the Recovery Period Before Discharge?

Extend recovery when the patient fails to meet established discharge criteria, not simply because time has passed. Specific indications include persistent hypothermia below the species-specific reference range, oxygen saturation below 94% on room air, heart rate or rhythm abnormalities, uncontrolled pain, or failure to regain sternal recumbency within the expected window for the drug protocol used. In wildlife and shelter patients, the stress of handling and transport can mask recovery deficits, so a longer observation period is prudent before release or transfer. Consult the MSD Veterinary Manual for species-specific physiologic reference values. When in doubt, err toward continued monitoring. Discharge criteria should be written before recovery begins, not improvised at the endpoint.

How Does Recovery Monitoring Differ in Rodents and Small Mammals?

Small mammals lose heat rapidly because of high surface area to body mass ratios, so temperature support must begin immediately after anesthetic delivery stops. Respiratory depression and airway obstruction are poorly tolerated due to small tidal volumes. Salivary sampling offers a low-invasive method for stress hormone assessment in rodents, and salivary corticosterone levels reflect plasma levels under restraint conditions, as shown in salivary corticosterone validation studies. However, this technique is a research tool, not a clinical monitoring standard. Recovery scoring systems developed for dogs and cats do not translate directly. Use species-appropriate arousal assessments, minimize handling during recovery, and provide warmed, oxygen-enriched environments until the patient is ambulatory.

What Should I Document in the Recovery Record?

Record the time anesthesia was discontinued, the time each arousal stage was reached, and all vital parameters with their measurement times. Note the drug protocol, reversal agents administered, and any rescue interventions. Document fluid therapy rates, thermal support measures, and the patient's position during recovery. Record pain scores using the same validated scale at each assessment point. Include the name of the person performing each assessment. If a complication occurred, document its onset, duration, and response to treatment. The AVMA practice resources provide guidance on medical record standards that apply to anesthetic recovery documentation. A complete record supports continuity of care and provides defensible evidence if questions arise later.

How Do I Explain a Prolonged Recovery to a Client?

Use clear, non-alarmist language that acknowledges the situation without speculating. State that the patient is stable but slower to wake than expected, and that monitoring is continuing. Explain common reasons for prolonged recovery, including hypothermia, drug accumulation, or underlying disease, without assigning a definitive cause prematurely. Describe the specific monitoring being performed and the criteria that must be met before discharge. Avoid promising a specific discharge time. If the patient's condition deteriorates, communicate promptly and honestly. For production animals or wildlife, the audience may be an owner, handler, or institutional oversight body, and the explanation should be adjusted accordingly. The WOAH terrestrial animal health standards address welfare expectations during animal procedures and can frame the discussion professionally.

What Are the Cost and Resource Considerations for Extended Monitoring?

Extended recovery monitoring consumes staff time, oxygen, warming devices, and hospital space. A cost-conscious approach designates a step-down area where stable patients receive continued observation without occupying surgical suites or intensive care beds. Assign monitoring responsibilities to trained personnel who can recognize deterioration and escalate care. If staffing is limited, prioritize continuous observation during the first 30 minutes after anesthetic delivery stops, when most complications occur. For shelter or field programs, allocate reversal agents and thermal support supplies before the procedure begins, as recommended in field anesthesia best-practice guidelines. Discuss resource limitations with the supervisor before recovery begins so that escalation pathways are clear and no delay occurs when intervention becomes necessary.

Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

• Hypersensitivity Reactions: Types and Mechanisms
• Therapeutic Decision-Making for Respiratory Infections in Cattle
• Monitoring Fluid Therapy in Critically Ill Veterinary Patients

References and Further Reading

• Somatosensory evoked potential monitoring of lumbar pedicle screw placement for in situ posterior spinal fusion.. 2003.
• Histopathologic correlation of magnetic resonance imaging signal patterns in a spinal cord injury model.. 1990.
• BEST-PRACTICE GUIDELINES FOR FIELD-BASED SURGERY AND ANESTHESIA OF FREE-RANGING WILDLIFE. I. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA.. 2016.
• Reversal of rocuronium-induced neuromuscular blockade by sugammadex allows for optimization of neural monitoring of the recurrent laryngeal nerve.. 2016.
• Evaluation of response to restraint stress by salivary corticosterone levels in adult male mice.. 2016.
• Anesthesia in shelter medicine.. 2010.
• Davis-Thompson Foundation Veterinary Pathology Resources. Davis-Thompson Foundation.
• MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition. MSD Veterinary Manual.
• American Veterinary Medical Association Practice Resources. American Veterinary Medical Association.

Related Articles

• Monitoring Nutritional Support in Hospitalized Veterinary Patients
• Monitoring Immunosuppressive Therapy in Veterinary Patients
• Monitoring Protocols for Chemotherapy in Veterinary Oncology Patients
• Monitoring Endocrine Therapy in Veterinary Patients: Insulin and Beyond
• Monitoring Fluid Therapy in Critically Ill Veterinary Patients

This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.