Equine Uterine Therapy: Decision-Making for Endometritis

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-08-11

Key Takeaways

• Endometritis classification is critical, distinguishing venereal, persistent breeding-induced (PBIE), and chronic infectious forms dictates therapeutic strategy, with PBIE requiring mechanical clearance and immunomodulation rather than antimicrobials.
• Uterine clearance is assessed via ultrasonographic fluid accumulation and response to oxytocin within 24-36 hours post-breeding; persistent fluid accumulation beyond this window warrants intervention.
• Cytology revealing neutrophils indicates inflammation, but must be correlated with culture results; growth of a single pathogen with concurrent cytologic inflammation supports treatment, while mixed growth may indicate contamination.
• Biofilm suspicion arises in recurrent infections with the same organism despite appropriate therapy, necessitating biofilm-disrupting approaches beyond standard antimicrobial infusions due to increased bacterial tolerance.
• Uterine lavage is indicated for persistent fluid accumulation or to disrupt biofilm, not for routine prophylaxis, and should be followed by oxytocin administration to promote mechanical clearance, avoiding administration during ovulation.
• Antimicrobial selection must be based on culture and sensitivity testing, not empirical broad-spectrum infusion, and route of administration (systemic vs. intrauterine) depends on the organism, product, and uterine environment.

Endometritis remains one of the most common causes of subfertility in broodmares, yet its management is frequently reduced to reflexive uterine lavage and empirical antibiotic infusion. This article provides a diagnostic-reasoning framework for the practicing veterinarian, moving from classification and sampling through to treatment selection. The focus is on when to intervene with lavage, oxytocin, and antimicrobial therapy, and when to withhold these interventions. Specific drug dosages are deliberately excluded, current formulary and label references must be consulted for dosing decisions.

The clinical question this article answers is direct: given a mare with suspected uterine inflammation, what diagnostic information distinguishes transient physiological inflammation from persistent infection, and how does that distinction alter therapy? The decision pathway rests on understanding the mare's uterine defense mechanisms, the limitations of each diagnostic modality, and the evidence for each therapeutic option. The reader is assumed to be a qualified veterinarian comfortable with reproductive palpation, ultrasonography, and endometrial sampling techniques.

At a Glance

Classification of Equine Endometritis

Endometritis in the mare is not a single disease entity. The historical view that all uterine inflammation resulted from bacterial contamination has given way to a more nuanced classification that separates infection from physiological inflammation. Breeding-induced endometritis is now understood as a distinct process triggered by semen exposure, with bacterial contamination representing only one of several initiating events.

Three clinically relevant categories emerge. Venereal endometritis follows coitus with a stallion carrying pathogenic bacteria, most notably Taylorella equigenitalis or Klebsiella pneumoniae. Persistent breeding-induced endometritis (PBIE) occurs when the normal post-breeding inflammatory response fails to resolve within 24 to 36 hours. Chronic infectious endometritis develops when bacteria or fungi establish a persistent uterine infection, often in mares with compromised uterine clearance mechanisms.

This classification matters because treatment differs fundamentally. Venereal disease requires identification of the specific pathogen and may involve stallion-side management. PBIE demands mechanical clearance and immunomodulation instead of antimicrobial therapy. Chronic infection requires culture-guided antibiotic selection and consideration of biofilm-directed strategies.

Uterine Defense Mechanisms and Susceptibility

The normal mare clears uterine contamination through a coordinated sequence of physical and immunological events. Mares resistant to persistent endometritis resolve inflammation within 24 to 36 hours of exposure to microorganisms or semen. This clearance depends on a rapid pro-inflammatory cytokine response, effective myometrial contractions, and drainage through a patent cervix.

Susceptible mares fail this sequence. They demonstrate imbalanced endometrial expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and accumulate intraluminal nitric oxide, which impairs myoelectrical activity and delays uterine clearance. The result is chronic inflammation that interferes with embryo survival and pregnancy establishment. The underlying immunologic basis for this susceptibility is increasingly recognized, though the inflammatory pathways are not fully characterized.

The systemic response to uterine infection is also relevant to monitoring. Experimental Escherichia coli endometritis produces a measurable systemic acute phase response, with serum amyloid A and fibrinogen rising significantly after inoculation. Endometrial expression of serum amyloid A correlates with plasma concentrations, suggesting that serial blood sampling could supplement local diagnostics in refractory cases.

Diagnostic Sampling and Interpretation

Sampling technique determines diagnostic accuracy. Double-guarded swabs, cytobrushes, low-volume lavage, and biopsy each have distinct performance characteriztics. The necessity for double-guarded techniques is emphasized to prevent sample contamination, particularly for culture. A single-guarded swab that contacts the vestibule or vagina will frequently yield environmental contaminants that obscure the true uterine flora.

Cytology and culture must be interpreted together. Neutrophils on cytology confirm inflammation, but their presence alone does not distinguish infection from physiological post-breeding inflammation. A positive culture with concurrent cytologic inflammation supports a diagnosis of infectious endometritis. A positive culture without inflammation may represent contamination or transient colonization. Conversely, cytologic inflammation with a negative culture suggests either a fastidious organizm, biofilm sequestration, or non-infectious inflammation.

The Society for Theriogenology provides professional resources on reproductive health management and breeding soundness evaluation that include updated guidance on sampling technique and interpretation thresholds. Practitioners should consult these resources alongside peer-reviewed veterinary references when establishing clinic-specific protocols.

Biofilm Formation and Treatment Resistance

Bacterial biofilms represent a distinct therapeutic challenge. Experimental inoculation of mares with Pseudomonas aeruginosa demonstrates that tissue-adherent bacteria localize in focal areas between endometrial folds, with biofilm matrix components detectable in the majority of infected uteri. Notably, the host inflammatory response is modulated focally around biofilm areas, yet overall tissue inflammation is similar in regions with and without biofilm matrix.

This has direct therapeutic implications. Bacteria within biofilms show increased tolerance to antimicrobial therapy, meaning standard antibiotic infusions may fail despite in vitro susceptibility. The focal distribution of biofilm also explains why cytobrush sampling may miss the infected area entirely. Mares with recurrent culture-positive endometritis despite appropriate antimicrobial therapy should raise suspicion for biofilm formation, and treatment strategies must address biofilm disruption instead of relying on antimicrobial action alone.

Diagnostic Reasoning Framework

The clinical approach begins with history and signalment. A mare with a history of retained uterine fluid after breeding, poor pregnancy rates, or recurrent positive cultures warrants systematic evaluation. The diagnostic sequence should proceed from ultrasonographic assessment of uterine fluid and tone, through cytologic and culture sampling, to biopsy where chronic endometrial degeneration is suspected.

Ultrasonography identifies intrauterine fluid accumulation, which is the most accessible marker of impaired clearance. Fluid volume and echogenicity provide information about the character of the inflammation. Anechoic fluid in the immediate post-breeding period is expected, persistent or echogenic fluid beyond 24 to 36 hours indicates failure of clearance mechanisms.

Cytology and culture should be performed before initiating therapy. Sampling after antibiotic infusion will yield false-negative cultures and confound interpretation. The cytobrush provides superior cellular yield compared to swabbing, while low-volume lavage samples a larger surface area at the cost of dilution. Biopsy offers histologic assessment of endometrial health but is more invasive and should be reserved for cases where chronic degenerative changes are suspected.

The decision to treat, and with what modality, follows from this diagnostic information. The subsequent sections of this article address each therapeutic option in detail, with emphasis on the evidence supporting each intervention and the clinical scenarios in which it is appropriate.

Therapeutic Decision Points in Endometritis Management

The transition from diagnosis to treatment requires a structured decision sequence. The clinician must first determine whether the mare has an active infection, a physiologic inflammatory response, or a mechanical clearance problem. These three conditions demand different interventions, and misclassification is the most common cause of treatment failure.

The first decision point is cytologic confirmation of inflammation. Endometrial cytology showing neutrophils in proportion to epithelial cells confirms endometritis, but it does not distinguish infection from semen-induced inflammation. Culture results provide this distinction. A mare with positive cytology and a significant bacterial isolate has infectious endometritis. A mare with positive cytology and a negative culture after breeding has persistent mating-induced endometritis (PMIE). A mare with negative cytology and a positive culture likely has contamination or a biofilm-associated infection that sampling failed to detect cytologically.

The second decision point is chronicity. Acute endometritis, whether infectious or breeding-induced, responds to lavage and ecbolic therapy. Chronic endometritis, particularly when associated with biofilm formation, requires a different approach. Tissue-adherent bacteria in biofilm communities show increased tolerance to antimicrobial therapy, and the host immune response is modulated focally around biofilm areas without a corresponding increase in tissue inflammation. This means a mare can have negative cytology, negative culture, and still carry a clinically significant biofilm infection.

The third decision point is the mare's reproductive status. A mare being bred this cycle has different treatment constraints than a mare being managed for a future cycle. Lavage and oxytocin are compatible with breeding. Intrauterine antibiotics may be contraindicated in the immediate post-breeding period depending on the product and the clinician's assessment of spermotoxicity risk.

Decision Tree for Endometritis Management

Uterine Lavage: Technique and Indications

Uterine lavage serves two distinct purposes. In the acute setting it removes inflammatory debris, bacteria, and semen remnants from the uterine lumen. In the chronic setting it disrupts biofilm architecture and improves the penetration of subsequently administered antimicrobials.

The technique requires a guarded catheter, sterile fluids, and a method for fluid recovery. A Foley catheter with an inflated cuff reduces retrograde fluid loss through the cervix. The clinician should use a volume that distends the uterus without causing discomfort, typically 1 to 3 liters in an adult mare. The fluid is infused by gravity flow, allowed to remain for a short period, then recovered by siphoning or gentle aspiration. The procedure is repeated until the recovered fluid is clear.

Lavage is indicated for mares with intrauterine fluid accumulation detected on ultrasound, mares with positive cytology and culture, and mares with a history of PMIE. The procedure is contraindicated in mares with a patent cervix that cannot retain fluid, mares with severe cervical lacerations, and mares in which the procedure causes significant distress. Mares susceptible to PMIE benefit from lavage before breeding to remove accumulated fluid and after breeding to remove semen and inflammatory products. The pre-breeding lavage improves the uterine environment for sperm transport, while the post-breeding lavage reduces the inflammatory burden.

The choice of lavage fluid matters. Isotonic crystalloids are standard. Some clinicians add antimicrobials to the lavage fluid, but this practice is not supported by evidence of superior outcomes. The mechanical effect of lavage is the primary therapeutic action. The clinician should monitor the recovered fluid volume. A significant discrepancy between infused and recovered volume suggests fluid retention, which may require additional ecbolic therapy or a longer drainage period.

Ecbolic Therapy and Uterine Clearance

Oxytocin is the primary ecbolic agent used to promote uterine clearance. It stimulates myometrial contractions and is most effective when administered after lavage, when the uterus is distended and the stretch receptors are activated. The timing of administration relative to lavage is a clinical decision based on the mare's response. Some mares clear fluid effectively with oxytocin alone, while others require the combination of lavage followed by oxytocin.

Mares susceptible to persistent endometritis fail to clear inflammation in a timely fashion. They have an imbalanced endometrial expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and accumulate intraluminal nitric oxide, which may impair myoelectrical activity and delay uterine clearance. This pathophysiologic basis explains why ecbolic therapy is central to managing these mares. The goal is to restore the normal clearance mechanism that resistant mares accomplish within 24 to 36 hours after exposure to microorganisms or semen.

The response to ecbolic therapy is monitored by ultrasound. The clinician assesses intrauterine fluid volume before treatment, then rechecks at 12 to 24 hours. A mare that clears fluid within 24 hours has adequate uterine clearance. A mare that retains fluid beyond 24 hours requires additional intervention. The clinician should also assess cervical tone and patency, as a cervix that fails to relax will impede drainage regardless of myometrial activity.

Antimicrobial Selection and Administration Route

Antimicrobial therapy is indicated only when culture confirms a significant bacterial isolate. The choice of antimicrobial should be guided by culture and susceptibility testing. The route of administration, systemic or intrauterine, depends on the organizm, the product, and the clinician's assessment of the uterine environment.

Intrauterine antimicrobials deliver high local concentrations but may irritate the endometrium. Systemic antimicrobials achieve more uniform tissue distribution but may not reach therapeutic concentrations in the uterine lumen. The evidence base for one route over the other is limited, and the clinician must weigh the specific circumstances. A mare with a heavy growth of a susceptible organizm and a healthy endometrium may respond to either route. A mare with chronic endometritis and biofilm formation may require a combination of lavage, systemic therapy, and repeated intrauterine treatment.

The clinician must consult current formulary and label references for dosing, withdrawal times, and contraindications. Antimicrobial selection should also consider the organizm's biofilm-forming potential. Pseudomonas aeruginosa, for example, produces a biofilm in the uterus, and the host immune response is modulated focally around areas with biofilm. This means that antimicrobial therapy alone is unlikely to eradicate the infection. The biofilm must be disrupted first, through lavage or mechanical debridement, before antimicrobials can be effective.

Monitoring Treatment Response

Treatment response is assessed by a combination of ultrasound, cytology, and culture. Ultrasound is the most immediate monitoring tool. It detects intrauterine fluid, which is the most visible sign of persistent inflammation. The clinician should document the location, volume, and echogenicity of any fluid. Clear anechoic fluid suggests a transudate or residual lavage fluid. Echogenic fluid suggests cellular debris or exudate.

Cytology is the definitive test for persistent inflammation. A post-treatment cytology showing neutrophils confirms that the inflammatory response has not resolved. The timing of the recheck cytology depends on the treatment protocol. For acute endometritis, a recheck at 48 to 72 hours is reasonable. For chronic endometritis, a recheck at 7 to 10 days allows time for the endometrium to recover.

Culture should be repeated only when the initial culture was positive and the treatment was intended to eliminate the organizm. A negative post-treatment culture in a mare with persistent cytologic inflammation suggests that the infection has cleared but the inflammatory response persists. A positive post-treatment culture suggests treatment failure, which may be due to antimicrobial resistance, biofilm formation, or reinfection.

The systemic acute phase response provides additional monitoring information. Endometritis elicits a systemic acute phase reaction with increased concentrations of serum amyloid A and fibrinogen. Serial measurement of serum amyloid A can track the resolution of the inflammatory response, though it is not specific to uterine inflammation. The clinician should interpret serum amyloid A in the context of the mare's overall clinical picture.

Documentation and Case Tracking

Accurate documentation is essential for managing recurrent endometritis. The clinician should record the date of sampling, the sampling method, the cytology result, the culture result, and the susceptibility profile. This information allows the clinician to detect patterns over time, such as recurrent infections with the same organizm or the emergence of antimicrobial resistance.

The clinician should also document the treatment protocol, including the lavage volume and frequency, the ecbolic agent and timing, and the antimicrobial selection. This record supports consistent decision-making across cycles and facilitates communication with the owner or farm manager. For mares with chronic endometritis, a longitudinal record is more valuable than a single diagnostic evaluation. The clinician should track the mare's response across multiple cycles to identify trends and adjust the treatment plan accordingly.

The diagnostic methods used to evaluate the mare should be recorded with attention to their performance characteriztics. The sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values of culture, cytology, and biopsy differ, and the clinician should interpret results in light of these limitations. A negative culture does not exclude infection, particularly when biofilm is present. A positive cytology confirms inflammation but does not identify the cause. The clinician should integrate all available information instead of relying on a single test result.

Recognized Complications and Early Detection

Endometritis treatment failure presents in recognizable patterns. Persistent intrauterine fluid after breeding is the most common complication, and it reflects either inadequate myometrial clearance or re-infection. Serial ultrasonography at 24 and 48 hours post-breeding distinguishes retained fluid from new accumulation. A mare that clears fluid initially but re-accumulates later should raise suspicion for cervical incompetence or recurrent bacterial entry instead of primary treatment failure.

Antimicrobial-associated disruption of the uterine microbiome occurs when broad-spectrum therapy is prolonged beyond the inflammatory window. Clinical signs include persistent neutrophilia on cytology without a corresponding pathogen on culture, or overgrowth of yeast or resistant Gram-negative organizms. Repeat cytology and culture at the end of a treatment course, also at the start, detects this complication.

Biofilm-associated infection represents a distinct failure mode. As demonstrated in an experimental model using Pseudomonas aeruginosa, tissue-adherent bacteria localize in focal areas between endometrial folds, and the host inflammatory response is modulated locally around biofilm while overall tissue inflammation remains similar in areas with and without biofilm matrix Ferris et al., biofilm model of chronic equine endometritis. Standard swab culture may miss these focal infections, and cytology can appear disproportionately mild relative to the clinical history. Low-volume lavage or biopsy targeting multiple endometrial regions improves detection.

Systemic spread is uncommon but possible, particularly with E. coli infection. Experimental inoculation produces a measurable systemic acute phase response with elevated serum amyloid A and fibrinogen Christoffersen et al., systemic acute phase response in experimentally induced endometritis. Mares showing fever, lethargy, or reduced appetite during treatment warrant systemic evaluation instead of continued local therapy alone.

Common Clinical Errors and Corrections

The most frequent error is treating cytology results without integrating culture findings. A positive cytology with a negative culture may represent physiologic post-breeding inflammation, sample contamination, or a fastidious organizm. Conversely, a positive culture with negative cytology often reflects contamination from the vestibule or clitoral area, particularly when sampling technique was not double-guarded Katila, evaluation of diagnostic methods in equine endometritis. The corrective action is to repeat sampling with a double-guarded technique and to interpret cytology and culture as paired results, not independent findings.

A second error is initiating antimicrobial therapy before mechanical clearance has been addressed. Uterine lavage and ecbolics address the primary defect in most mares with delayed clearance, and antibiotics added prematurely obscure the response to mechanical therapy. The correct sequence is lavage and ecbolics first, reassessment at 24 hours, then antimicrobials only if inflammation or infection persists.

A third error is treating every post-breeding fluid accumulation as infectious. Physiologic breeding-induced endometritis resolves within 24 to 36 hours in resistant mares Troedsson and Woodward, current understanding of equine endometritis pathophysiology. Intervention is warranted for persistent fluid, not for transient accumulation.

Troubleshooting Table

Evidence Limitations and Divergent Expert Opinion

The evidence base for equine endometritis treatment rests heavily on experimental models and small clinical studies. Cytokine responses in susceptible mares are incompletely characterized, and the relationship between specific inflammatory pathways and treatment outcomes remains uncertain Troedsson and Woodward, current understanding of equine endometritis pathophysiology. Expert opinion diverges on the value of intrauterine plasma therapy. One study found that platelet-rich plasma reduced endometrial neutrophils, post-breeding fluid, and pro-inflammatory cytokines compared with controls, but platelet-poor plasma produced similar effects, suggesting the benefit may relate to the plasma vehicle instead of platelets specifically Segabinazzi et al., intrauterine plasma therapy for persistent breeding-induced endometritis. Clinicians should interpret such results cautiously and consider cost and availability before adopting this therapy.

The role of biofilm in clinical endometritis is established experimentally but its prevalence in field cases is unknown. Standard culture techniques do not reliably detect biofilm-forming organizms, and no validated clinical protocol exists for biofilm eradication.

Referral and Escalation Criteria

Referral to a theriogenology specialist is warranted when a mare fails to conceive across multiple cycles despite appropriate diagnosis and treatment, when cervical or uterine conformation limits access to the uterus, or when repeated culture yields unusual or multi-resistant organizms. Specialist centers offer hysteroscopy, advanced imaging, and laboratory capabilities not routinely available in ambulatory practice.

Laboratory involvement is indicated for mares with persistent culture-negative endometritis, suspected fungal infection, or biofilm-associated disease. A diagnostic laboratory can perform enriched culture, antimicrobial susceptibility testing, and cytology with standardized interpretation. The Society for Theriogenology maintains resources on reproductive health management and can assist in locating specialists Society for Theriogenology resources.

Regulatory reporting applies when a notifiable pathogen is identified. Equine endometritis itself is not generally reportable, but clinicians should consult current jurisdictional requirements for specific organizms such as Taylorella equigenitalis, the cause of contagious equine metritis. The WOAH terrestrial animal health standards list diseases with international reporting obligations, and national veterinary authorities maintain local lists. When in doubt, contact the relevant authority before proceeding with treatment.

Frequently Asked Questions

How Do I Manage Endometritis When Uterine Lavage Equipment Is Unavailable?

When commercial lavage equipment is unavailable, a sterile nasogastric tube or Foley catheter with a fluid administration set can serve as an effective alternative. Gravity flow is preferred over manual pumping to reduce endometrial trauma. Use sterile isotonic fluids warmed to body temperature. The mare should be sedated and restrained appropriately, and strict aseptic technique is mandatory to avoid introducing additional contamination. Double-guarded sampling techniques are equally important during treatment monitoring to prevent sample contamination, as emphasized in evaluation of diagnostic methods in equine endometritis. If lavage cannot be performed safely, prioritize ecbolic therapy and systemic anti-inflammatory support while arranging referral or alternative equipment.

When Should I Suspect Biofilm-Associated Endometritis instead of Simple Bacterial Infection?

Suspect biofilm involvement when a mare fails to respond to apparently appropriate antimicrobial therapy despite repeated culture and sensitivity testing, or when cytology shows persistent neutrophils with low bacterial numbers. Experimental models demonstrate that tissue-adherent bacteria localize in focal areas between endometrial folds and that inflammation is similar in areas with and without biofilm matrix, meaning biopsy findings may not reflect the presence of biofilm. The host immune response is modulated focally around biofilm areas, as shown in a model of chronic equine endometritis involving Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm. If the same organizm is cultured repeatedly despite treatment, request laboratory assessment for biofilm-forming capacity and consider mechanical disruption through lavage before antimicrobial administration.

How Do I Counsel an Owner About the Cost-Benefit of Advanced Therapy Such as Platelet-Rich Plasma?

Explain that conventional therapy with lavage and ecbolics resolves most cases, but a subset of mares with persistent breeding-induced endometritis remains refractory. Autologous platelet-rich plasma has been evaluated in susceptible mares, with treatment reducing endometrial neutrophils, post-breeding intrauterine fluid accumulation, and pro-inflammatory cytokines compared with control cycles, although platelet-poor plasma showed similar effects in intrauterine blood plasma platelet-therapy research. Frame the discussion around the mare's breeding value, age, and prior reproductive history. Advise the owner that evidence for advanced biologics is still developing and that response varies between individuals. Offer a staged approach: one cycle with conventional therapy, then reassess before committing to more expensive options.

What Records Should I Maintain for a Mare Undergoing Endometritis Treatment?

Maintain a per-cycle record that includes breeding dates, diagnostic sampling results with collection method, cytology and culture findings, treatment dates and routes, and fluid accumulation scores at each examination. Document the specific lavage volume, fluid appearance, and volume recovered, since retained fluid is a key prognostic indicator. Record any adverse reactions and the timing of treatment relative to breeding and ovulation. This documentation supports pattern recognition across cycles and facilitates communication with referral centers. Professional practice resources from the American Veterinary Medical Association can guide record-keeping standards. Consistent records also help distinguish persistent endometritis from recurrent contamination, which changes therapeutic strategy.

How Does Endometritis Management Differ Between Embryo Transfer Donors and Natural Breeding Mares?

Embryo transfer donors require more aggressive post-breeding management because the uterus must be hospitable for embryo recovery, and the financial value of each cycle is high. Monitoring should include daily ultrasound assessment of intrauterine fluid and endometrial edema through 96 hours post-breeding. Natural breeding mares can sometimes be managed with less intensive monitoring if they have no history of susceptibility. For both groups, the physiologic inflammatory response to semen resolves within 24 to 36 hours in resistant mares, as described in breeding-induced endometritis pathophysiology. Donors with suspected persistent endometritis should have embryo recovery delayed or the cycle cancelled if inflammation does not clear, whereas natural breeding mares may still conceive with supportive therapy.

How Should I Explain Endometritis Susceptibility to an Owner Who Believes Antibiotics Are Always Required?

Clarify that endometritis is not always infectious. Breeding itself triggers a physiologic inflammatory response to semen, and some mares fail to clear this inflammation efficiently due to impaired uterine clearance mechanisms, as outlined in breeding-induced endometritis in mares. Antibiotics treat bacterial infection but do not correct mechanical clearance failure. Use the analogy of a drainage problem instead of an infection. Explain that lavage and oxytocin address the drainage issue, while antibiotics are reserved for confirmed bacterial growth. Show the owner the cytology results and culture report to make the distinction concrete. This explanation prevents unnecessary antimicrobial use and builds trust in the treatment plan.

Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

• Diagnostic Approach to Canine Infertility in the Bitch
• Canine Neonatal Resuscitation: Protocol and Monitoring
• Equine Breeding Soundness Examination of the Stallion

References and Further Reading

• Evaluation of diagnostic methods in equine endometritis.. 2016.
• Intrauterine Blood Plasma Platelet-Therapy Mitigates Persistent Breeding-Induced Endometritis, Reduces Uterine Infections, and Improves Embryo Recovery in Mares.. 2021.
• Our current understanding of the pathophysiology of equine endometritis with an emphasis on breeding-induced endometritis.. 2016.
• Model of Chronic Equine Endometritis Involving a Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilm.. 2017.
• Evaluation of the systemic acute phase response and endometrial gene expression of serum amyloid A and pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in mares with experimentally induced endometritis.. 2010.
• Breeding-induced endometritis in mares.. 2006.
• Society for Theriogenology Resources. Society for Theriogenology.
• MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition. MSD Veterinary Manual.
• American Veterinary Medical Association Practice Resources. American Veterinary Medical Association.

Related Articles

• Dystocia Management in the Bitch: Decision-Making and Intervention
• Equine Brucellosis: Diagnosis and Management
• Equine Breeding Soundness Examination: Mare Evaluation
• Equine Breeding Soundness Examination of the Stallion
• Equine Pregnancy Diagnosis: Methods and Clinical Application

This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.