Diagnostic Approach to Neurological Disease in Swine: Differentiating Viral, Bacterial, and Toxic Causes

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-08-11

Key Takeaways

• Differentiating viral, bacterial, and toxic causes of neurological disease in swine necessitates a systematic approach, as clinical signs frequently overlap; laboratory confirmation via molecular assays (e.g., multiplex qRT-PCR) is paramount for definitive diagnosis.
• Age class is a critical initial filter, with neonates often presenting with congenital tremors (potentially ASFV, CSFV, PRRSV, PRV) and growers/finishers more susceptible to bacterial meningitis (S. suis) or viral encephalitides (PRV, CSFV, JEV).
• A thorough neurologic examination, coupled with signalment (age, distribution pattern) and clinical findings (fever presence, reproductive history), helps localize lesions and narrow the differential list, guiding appropriate sample selection (brain, spinal cord, blood).
• Viral encephalitides are typically febrile and characterized by nonsuppurative inflammation, while bacterial meningitis presents with suppurative inflammation, and toxic encephalopathies are generally afebrile and lack inflammatory changes, with specific mechanisms like hypernatremia or acetylcholinesterase inhibition.
• Sample selection is critical, with fresh brain tissue (brainstem, cerebellum) essential for molecular testing and fixed tissue for histopathology; blood in EDTA is useful for viremic pathogens, and toxicologic samples include feed, water, and specific tissues like liver and kidney.
• Notifiable diseases such as Classical Swine Fever (CSFV) and African Swine Fever (ASFV) require immediate reporting and specific diagnostic pathways, often involving national reference laboratories and adherence to WOAH standards.

Neurological signs in pigs present a diagnostic challenge that demands systematic reasoning. The differential list is broad, encompassing viral encephalitides, bacterial infections of the central nervous system, toxic exposures, and metabolic disturbances. This article provides a structured diagnostic framework for the practicing veterinarian, prioritizing the clinical differentiation of viral, bacterial, and toxic etiologies. It covers signalment-based risk assessment, neurologic examination findings, lesion localization, and a laboratory testing strategy that moves from rapid screening assays to confirmatory diagnostics. The approach assumes access to routine necropsy and a diagnostic laboratory capable of molecular testing.

The clinical question this article answers is direct: when a pig presents with tremors, ataxia, paresis, or recumbency, what is the most efficient path to a defensible diagnosis? The answer depends on recognizing that several viral pathogens produce nearly identical neurologic presentations. Porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus (PHEV), pseudorabies virus (PRV), classical swine fever virus (CSFV), and Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) all cause similar neurological signs in infected pigs, and their differential diagnosis depends on laboratory testing instead of clinical acumen alone quadruplex qRT-PCR for PHEV, PRV, CSFV, and JEV. Similarly, African swine fever virus (ASFV), CSFV, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), and PRV induce overlapping clinical presentations that include hyperthermia, hemorrhage, respiratory distress, neurological symptoms, and abortions in pregnant sows quadruplex RT-qPCR for ASFV, CSFV, PRRSV, and PRV. The diagnostic approach must therefore be anchored in laboratory confirmation, with clinical examination used to narrow the differential and guide sample selection.

At a Glance

Pathophysiology of Neurologic Disease in Swine

The central nervous system responds to injury through a limited repertoire of clinical signs. Understanding the mechanisms by which different agents produce neurologic dysfunction guides both lesion localization and diagnostic prioritization.

Viral Encephalitis and Meningoencephalitis

Viral pathogens reach the central nervous system through hematogenous spread or neuronal migration. JEV, a mosquito-borne flavivirus, causes acute neurological signs in infected piglets, while adult swine typically remain asymptomatic despite infection Japanese encephalitis virus infection, diagnosis and control in domestic animals. This age-dependent susceptibility is a critical diagnostic clue. The virus produces a nonsuppurative encephalitis with neuronal necrosis, perivascular cuffing, and gliosis, predominantly affecting the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and brainstem.

PRV, an alphaherpesvirus, spreads along neural pathways from the site of entry. The virus causes a severe, often fatal meningoencephalitis in young pigs, with prominent pruritus in some cases. CSFV produces a multisystemic disease with encephalomyelitis characterized by perivascular cuffing, endothelial swelling, and microgliosis. PHEV, a coronavirus, targets the respiratory tract initially before ascending to the brainstem via peripheral nerves, producing a distinctive vomiting and wasting syndrome followed by neurologic signs in neonates.

Bacterial Infections of the Central Nervous System

Bacterial meningitis in swine most commonly results from septicemic spread of pathogens such as Streptococcus suis, Hemophilus parasuis, and Mycoplasma hyorhinis. These organizms colonize the upper respiratory tract and invade the bloodstream, with the meninges and choroid plexus as preferred sites of localization. The resulting suppurative meningitis and choroiditis produce fever, depression, opisthotonos, and convulsions. Polyserositis often accompanies meningitis with H. parasuis infection, providing a clinical clue at necropsy.

Toxic and Metabolic Encephalopathies

Toxic causes of neurologic disease in swine include salt poisoning (water deprivation), lead toxicity, organophosphate and carbamate insecticide poisoning, and ionophore toxicity. These agents disrupt neuronal function through distinct mechanisms: hypernatremia causes cerebral edema, organophosphates inhibit acetylcholinesterase, and ionophores interfere with mitochondrial ion transport. Toxic encephalopathies typically lack the inflammatory changes seen with infectious causes, and affected animals are usually afebrile.

Age-Based Differential Prioritization

Age at presentation is the single most useful clinical filter in swine neurologic disease. Neonatal pigs (birth to 7 days) most commonly present with congenital tremors, which have been associated with ASFV infection in addition to the classic etiologies such as classical swine fever and porcine circovirus type 2 detection of ASFV in neonatal piglets with congenital tremors. PHEV also targets neonates, producing neurologic signs within the first weeks of life. Grower and finisher pigs are the classic population for S. suis meningitis, salt poisoning, and PRV infection. Adult swine more frequently present with reproductive failure accompanying viral infection, with neurologic signs less prominent.

The Neurologic Examination in Pigs

A complete neurologic examination in swine is constrained by the species' temperament and housing, but a focused assessment is achievable. Begin with observation from a distance, noting posture, gait, and mentation. Tremors, head tilt, circling, and recumbency are readily identifiable. Assess cranial nerve function by evaluating pupillary light reflexes, menace response, and facial symmetry. Spinal reflexes are difficult to assess reliably in pigs, so proprioceptive positioning and withdrawal responses provide more useful information.

Lesion localization follows standard principles. Cerebral disease produces altered mentation, circling, and compulsive behavior. Brainstem involvement causes cranial nerve deficits, head tilt, and proprioceptive abnormalities. Cerebellar disease manifests as intention tremors, dysmetria, and base-wide stance. Spinal cord lesions produce ataxia and paresis with normal mentation. Peripheral nerve and neuromuscular disease cause flaccid paresis and diminished reflexes.

Clinical Syndromes and Their Differential Priorities

Congenital Tremors and Neonatal Neurologic Signs

Congenital tremors in piglets present as rhythmic, generalized shaking that resolves with sleep. The differential includes ASFV, CSFV, PRRSV, and PRV, all of which must be excluded by molecular testing quadruplex RT-qPCR for ASFV, CSFV, PRRSV, and PRV. The presence of congenital tremors in a farrowing batch warrants immediate investigation because ASFV is a notifiable disease with severe trade consequences. Necropsy with brain tissue collection for PCR and immunohistochemistry is the diagnostic priority.

Febrile Encephalitis in Grower and Finisher Pigs

A febrile grower pig with acute neurologic signs presents a differential that includes PRV, CSFV, JEV, and bacterial meningitis. The presence of concurrent respiratory signs or reproductive failure in the breeding herd shifts the probability toward viral etiologies. Bacterial meningitis from S. suis is the most common sporadic cause in this age group, often associated with tail biting, crowding, or concurrent respiratory disease. The distinction matters for both treatment and herd-level control, and it requires laboratory confirmation.

Afebrile Neurologic Signs

Afebrile neurologic signs suggest toxic or metabolic etiologies. Salt poisoning produces a characteriztic clinical picture of blindness, circling, and seizures in pigs deprived of water, followed by sudden access to water. Organophosphate toxicity presents with salivation, lacrimation, urination, and defecation in addition to neurologic signs. A thorough review of feed, water, and environmental exposures is essential when infectious causes are less likely.

Laboratory Confirmation Strategy

Clinical examination narrows the differential but cannot confirm a specific etiology. The overlapping clinical presentations of PHEV, PRV, CSFV, and JEV, and of ASFV, CSFV, PRRSV, and PRV, mandate molecular testing quadruplex qRT-PCR for PHEV, PRV, CSFV, and JEV quadruplex RT-qPCR for ASFV, CSFV, PRRSV, and PRV. Multiplex assays that detect and differentiate multiple pathogens in a single reaction offer efficiency and speed, with reported limits of detection in the range of 10 to 150 copies per reaction depending on the assay and target gene.

Sample selection is critical. Brain tissue, particularly the brainstem and cerebellum, is the preferred specimen for viral encephalitides. Whole blood collected in EDTA is suitable for viremic pathogens. At necropsy, collect fresh brain tissue in a sterile container for molecular testing and fixed brain in formalin for histopathology. The fixed tissue provides the histologic context needed to distinguish inflammatory from noninflammatory lesions, which is essential when molecular testing is negative.

Notifiable disease considerations apply. ASFV and CSFV are reportable to national veterinary authorities in most jurisdictions, and the WOAH terrestrial animal health standards govern surveillance and trade-related disease control. The USDA APHIS animal health information portal provides national program details for veterinarians in the United States. Confirm the reporting requirements in your jurisdiction before initiating testing, and contact the appropriate authority if a notifiable disease is suspected.

Specimen Selection and Handling

The diagnostic value of laboratory testing depends on selecting the correct tissue for the suspected pathogen and preserving it properly. For viral causes of neurologic disease, brain tissue is the primary specimen. Choose the anatomic site based on the pathogen's tropism. Pseudorabies virus and porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus concentrate in the brainstem and trigeminal ganglia, while classical swine fever virus and Japanese encephalitis virus produce more diffuse encephalitic changes. Collect cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem, and spinal cord sections separately and label each. A complete set of fixed tissues in 10% neutral buffered formalin allows histopathologic examination, while parallel fresh samples frozen at -80°C preserve nucleic acid for molecular testing.

Whole blood in EDTA tubes is useful for viremic pathogens such as classical swine fever virus and African swine fever virus, particularly in the febrile phase before antibody appears. Serum supports serologic testing but is less reliable for direct viral detection once viremia wanes. Cerebrospinal fluid collection from the lumbosacral space is feasible in pigs under heavy sedation or anesthesia but is rarely performed in field settings due to practical constraints. When collected, CSF supports cytologic evaluation and PCR for selected agents.

Toxicologic specimens differ substantially. Feed samples should be collected from multiple locations within the feeder and pen, including refused feed, because mycotoxins and salt distribute unevenly. Water samples require a clean container and should be taken from the drinking source instead of the bowl. Brain tissue, liver, kidney, and ocular fluid each support specific toxicologic assays. For salt poisoning, brain sodium concentration and ocular fluid sodium levels provide confirmatory evidence. For lead, liver and kidney are preferred. For organophosphates, brain cholinesterase activity is the definitive test.

Diagnostic Test Selection and Interpretation

Molecular assays now dominate swine neurologic disease diagnosis because they offer speed, sensitivity, and multiplexing capacity. A quadruplex real-time quantitative RT-PCR that detects and differentiates porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus, pseudorabies virus, classical swine fever virus, and Japanese encephalitis virus in a single reaction has been validated on clinical samples, with detection limits near 15 copies per microliter and no cross-reaction with other swine viruses quadruplex RT-qPCR for PHEV, PRV, CSFV, and JEV. A similar quadruplex assay incorporating African swine fever virus, classical swine fever virus, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus, and pseudorabies virus provides an alternative panel for febrile neurologic presentations quadruplex RT-qPCR for ASFV, CSFV, PRRSV, and PRV. These panels are most useful when the clinical syndrome does not clearly prioritize a single agent.

Choose the assay panel based on the clinical presentation and the diseases present in the region. In a herd with endemic pseudorabies, include that agent in every neurologic workup. In a region free of classical swine fever, a single-agent PCR for the most likely endemic virus may be more cost-effective than a full panel. The laboratory's validated assays and the submission forms should guide the selection. Consult the WOAH terrestrial animal health code for reportable disease requirements that may mandate specific testing pathways.

Virus isolation remains useful for novel or unexpected agents. The discovery of Virus X, a cytopathic enveloped virus isolated from nervous tissue and sera of pigs with reproductive and neurologic disease, illustrates the value of culture-based approaches when standard panels return negative results isolation of a novel viral agent associated with porcine reproductive and neurological syndrome. Virus isolation requires fresh, refrigerated tissue submitted within 24 to 48 hours of collection. It is slower than PCR but provides an isolate for characterization, vaccine matching, or pathogenicity studies.

Serology has a limited role in diagnosing acute neurologic disease because antibodies appear after the clinical onset. Paired acute and convalescent sera can confirm infection retrospectively, particularly for Japanese encephalitis virus where maternal antibody complicates interpretation in piglets Japanese encephalitis virus infection, diagnosis and control in domestic animals. Serology is more useful for herd-level surveillance and vaccination monitoring than for individual case diagnosis.

Histopathology with immunohistochemistry adds value when PCR is negative but the clinical suspicion remains high. African swine fever virus was detected in brain tissue of neonatal piglets with congenital tremors by PCR and immunohistochemistry after other viral causes were excluded, demonstrating that immunohistochemistry can confirm the etiologic role of a virus detected in nervous tissue detection of African swine fever virus in neonatal piglets with congenital tremors. Formalin-fixed brain sections allow evaluation of lesion distribution and character, which supports the differential diagnosis even when molecular testing is unrevealing.

Interpretation of Laboratory Results

A positive PCR result must be interpreted in context. Detection of viral nucleic acid in brain tissue does not prove causation, particularly for viruses that establish latency or persist after recovery. Pseudorabies virus can be detected in trigeminal ganglia of latently infected carriers without active encephalitis. Correlate the PCR result with histopathologic lesions and the clinical syndrome before assigning causation.

A negative PCR result does not exclude a viral cause. Sampling error, RNA degradation, or viral clearance before sample collection can produce false negatives. If the clinical syndrome strongly suggests a specific virus, repeat testing on additional brain regions or collect samples earlier in the disease course. For toxic causes, negative toxicology on a single feed sample does not rule out exposure because mycotoxins distribute heterogeneously.

Documentation and Reporting

Record the signalment, clinical signs, lesion distribution, and laboratory results in a standardized format that supports herd-level analysis. Include the date of onset, number of pigs affected, morbidity and mortality rates, and the age group involved. Photograph gross lesions and histopathology for the record. For reportable diseases, follow the notification requirements of the relevant animal health authority. The USDA APHIS animal health information portal provides access to national program requirements in the United States, while the WOAH terrestrial animal health code defines international reporting obligations.

Decision Framework for Test Selection

The correct test sequence depends on the production system and regional disease status. A breeding herd with neurologic disease in piglets and concurrent abortions should prioritize pseudorabies and Japanese encephalitis virus testing. A grow-finish site with febrile encephalitis in multiple pigs should include classical swine fever and African swine fever virus in the panel because of their reportable status and rapid spread potential. In all cases, the diagnostic plan should be adjusted as results return, with negative results prompting expansion of the differential instead of closure of the investigation.

Recognized Complications and Failure Modes

Diagnostic failure in swine neurologic disease usually follows one of several recognizable patterns. The most consequential is premature closure on a single differential after one positive or negative test. A pig with febrile encephalitis may test positive for classical swine fever virus by PCR while a concurrent bacterial meningitis remains undetected, because antimicrobial administration before sampling has suppressed culture growth. Conversely, a negative PCR result for pseudorabies virus does not exclude the disease when samples were taken late in the clinical course or after autolysis has degraded viral RNA.

Sample degradation is the second major failure mode. Brain tissue that has undergone several freeze-thaw cycles, prolonged ambient-temperature transport, or fixation in formalin before PCR submission will produce false negatives. The same applies to whole blood stored improperly before nucleic acid extraction. Detection of African swine fever virus in neonatal piglets with congenital tremors required PCR and immunohistochemistry on brain tissue, illustrating that sample type and quality determine whether a neurologic presentation is correctly attributed to a pathogen that may otherwise be overlooked (Detection of African swine fever virus in neonatal piglets with congenital tremors).

A third pattern is over-reliance on serology for agents where maternal antibody, vaccination, or prior exposure confounds interpretation. A single positive titre for Japanese encephalitis virus in a sow herd does not distinguish historic exposure from active infection causing neurologic disease in piglets (Japanese encephalitis virus infection, diagnosis and control in domestic animals).

Common Diagnostic Errors and Corrective Action

Less experienced clinicians frequently misclassify the neurologic presentation before sampling. A pig with vestibular signs and head tilt may be worked up for otitis media or meningitis when the underlying cause is salt poisoning or water deprivation. The corrective action is to obtain a complete history of water access, feed formulation, and recent ration changes before any laboratory submission.

Another recurring error is sampling only blood and not cerebrospinal fluid or brain tissue. Several viral agents that cause similar neurologic signs, including porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus, pseudorabies virus, classical swine fever virus, and Japanese encephalitis virus, are best differentiated by nucleic acid detection in nervous tissue instead of serum (Development of a quadruplex real-time quantitative RT-PCR for detection and differentiation of PHEV, PRV, CSFV, and JEV). Blood may be negative while brain is positive, particularly in peracute cases.

A third error is failure to include toxic causes in the differential when the herd history is suggestive. Neurologic signs with a sudden onset after a ration change, or affecting multiple pigs within hours, should prompt feed and water testing in parallel with infectious disease testing, not sequentially.

Limitations of Current Evidence

The evidence base for swine neurologic disease diagnosis carries several gaps. Most published multiplex PCR panels have been validated on clinical samples from specific geographic regions, and their performance on other populations or production systems may differ. The quadruplex assays described for differentiating viral causes of neurologic disease report high sensitivity and specificity, but their positivity rates in field samples are low, meaning negative predictive value is high while positive predictive value for any single agent remains uncertain (Development of a quadruplex real-time quantitative RT-PCR for detection and differentiation of PHEV, PRV, CSFV, and JEV).

Expert opinion still differs on the role of novel or emerging agents. The isolation of a previously unrecognised cytopathic virus, termed Virus X, from cases of porcine reproductive and neurologic syndrome demonstrates that conventional diagnostic panels may miss causative agents (Isolation of a novel viral agent associated with porcine reproductive and neurological syndrome and reproduction of the disease). Whether such agents are common or geographically restricted remains unresolved.

Referral, Consultation, and Regulatory Reporting

Referral to a veterinary diagnostic laboratory is warranted whenever a neurologic outbreak involves multiple pigs, is progressing across groups, or has failed to respond to empirical management. Specialist consultation with a veterinary neurologist or swine disease specialist is appropriate for sporadic cases where the clinical syndrome does not match a recognized pattern.

Regulatory reporting obligations vary by jurisdiction and by agent. Diseases such as classical swine fever, African swine fever, and pseudorabies are reportable in many regions, and the attending veterinarian should confirm current requirements with the relevant animal health authority. International standards for surveillance and reporting are published by the World Organization for Animal Health in the Terrestrial Animal Health Code, and national programs are described by bodies such as the USDA APHIS livestock and poultry disease resources. When a reportable disease is suspected, the laboratory should be notified before samples are shipped so that appropriate biocontainment and chain-of-custody procedures are followed.

Frequently Asked Questions

How Do I Prioritize Testing When Budget or Laboratory Access Is Limited?

Start with the diseases that threaten herd-level health and trade. Classical swine fever, African swine fever, and pseudorabies must be ruled out first because of their regulatory and economic consequences. Collect brain, tonsil, and lung tissue from two to three acutely affected, untreated animals. If only one test is affordable, request a multiplex PCR panel that covers the major viral differentials. Several validated quadruplex assays now detect and differentiate porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus, pseudorabies virus, classical swine fever virus, and Japanese encephalitis virus in a single run, which reduces cost per agent tested. Consult your veterinary diagnostic laboratory about sample pooling strategies and confirm which pathogens are included in their panels before submission. WOAH terrestrial animal health standards and USDA APHIS animal health information provide guidance on reportable disease protocols.

What Should I Do When Fresh Tissue Samples Cannot Be Obtained?

Fixed tissues limit diagnostic options substantially. Virus isolation and most molecular assays require fresh, refrigerated, or frozen samples. If only formalin-fixed brain is available, immunohistochemistry can still detect African swine fever virus, pseudorabies virus, and several other pathogens, but sensitivity is lower than PCR. Serology on paired serum samples may support a retrospective diagnosis when tissues are unavailable, particularly for Japanese encephalitis virus and pseudorabies virus. Collect cerebrospinal fluid from the atlanto-occipital space before brain removal if fresh brain cannot be harvested. CSF can support PCR testing for several viral agents and cytology for bacterial meningitis. Document the limitations of the sample set in the final report so that a negative result is not overinterpreted. MSD Veterinary Manual professional reference describes sample handling requirements for neurologic disease workups.

How Do I Distinguish a Single Neurologic Case from an Outbreak?

Single cases are more likely to reflect trauma, congenital malformation, or sporadic bacterial infection. Outbreaks suggest an infectious or toxic common source. Calculate the attack rate within the affected age cohort and map cases by pen, room, or barn. If multiple pigs in one airspace or water line are affected within a 7 to 14 day window, prioritize viral encephalitis or waterborne toxicosis. Bacterial meningitis often clusters within a pen but spreads more slowly than viral disease. Congenital tremors in multiple litters from different sows point to an in utero infectious event instead of a genetic cause. The distinction matters for specimen selection: outbreak investigations warrant collecting samples from several affected animals across different pens, whereas a single case may justify a more limited diagnostic panel. FAO animal production and health guidance offers frameworks for herd-level disease investigation.

Which Neurologic Diseases in Pigs Are Reportable in My Region?

Reporting requirements vary by jurisdiction. Classical swine fever, African swine fever, and pseudorabies are reportable in most countries, and Japanese encephalitis virus has public health significance in endemic regions. Check your national veterinary authority and the WOAH terrestrial animal health code for current notifiable disease lists. Some regional authorities also require reporting of unusual neurologic presentations even before a diagnosis is confirmed. When clinical signs suggest a reportable disease, contact the appropriate authority before conducting extensive testing, because they may direct sample submission to a designated laboratory. Document all communications and test results. Failure to report a confirmed or suspected notifiable disease can delay regional control measures and may carry legal consequences. USDA APHIS maintains current reporting contacts for the United States.

How Should I Communicate Findings to the Producer Without Overstating Certainty?

Present the differential list in order of likelihood and explain which tests are pending or were not performed. Use language that distinguishes confirmed diagnoses from compatible findings. For example, state that histopathology is consistent with viral encephalitis but that the specific agent has not yet been identified. Explain the implications of each possible diagnosis for herd health, trade, and public health where relevant. Provide a written summary that includes the samples collected, tests run, results, and recommended next steps. If a diagnosis remains uncertain, say so explicitly and outline what additional testing could resolve the case. Producers need enough information to make management decisions, but speculative conclusions can undermine trust when later results contradict them. AVMA practice resources provide guidance on professional communication and medical record documentation.

How Do I Approach Neurologic Disease in Breeding Stock Differently from Grower Pigs?

Reproductive consequences dominate the clinical picture in adult swine. Japanese encephalitis virus causes abortion, stillbirth, and birth defects in sows, often without maternal neurologic signs. Pseudorabies virus can cause respiratory signs in adults alongside reproductive failure. Congenital tremors in piglets may reflect in utero infection with African swine fever virus, as documented in affected neonatal piglets where the virus was detected in brain tissue. When neurologic signs appear in breeding stock, collect serum from the affected animal and from pen mates, and include reproductive tissues such as placenta and fetal lung in the sample set. Ask about boar fertility and semen quality, because some viral agents affect reproduction in both sexes. The diagnostic panel should include agents that cause reproductive and neurologic disease instead of only those causing encephalitis in growers. Japanese encephalitis virus infection, diagnosis and control in domestic animals reviews the reproductive impact of this agent in swine.

Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

• Rumen Health Assessment in Dairy Cows: Clinical and Subclinical Indicators
• Mastitis Control Programs in Dairy Herds: Monitoring and Prevention
• Swine Nutrition and Health: Feed-Related Disease Diagnosis

References and Further Reading

• Japanese encephalitis virus infection, diagnosis and control in domestic animals.. 2017.
• Isolation of a novel viral agent associated with porcine reproductive and neurological syndrome and reproduction of the disease.. 2008.
• Zoonotic Taenia infections with focus on cysticercosis due to Taenia solium in swine and humans.. 2021.
• Development of a quadruplex real-time quantitative RT-PCR for detection and differentiation of PHEV, PRV, CSFV, and JEV.. 2023.
• A Quadruplex RT-qPCR for the Detection of African Swine Fever Virus, Classical Swine Fever Virus, Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus, and Porcine Pseudorabies Virus.. 2024.
• Detection of African swine fever virus in neonatal piglets with congenital tremors.. 2022.
• USDA APHIS Animal Health Information. USDA APHIS.
• FAO Animal Production and Health. FAO.
• MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition. MSD Veterinary Manual.

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This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.