Bovine Respiratory Disease Prevention: Vaccination and Management Strategies

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-08-11

Key Takeaways

• Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) is a complex of infectious diseases driven by viral primers (BoHV-1, BVDV, PI-3, BRSV, Bovine Coronavirus) that compromise pulmonary defenses, facilitating secondary bacterial pneumonia, primarily by Mannheimia hemolytica serotypes A1 and A6, whose leukotoxin is a pivotal virulence factor.
• Effective BRD prevention requires a multi-pronged approach addressing pathogen exposure (biosecurity, source control), host immune status (vaccination, colostrum management), and stress mitigation, as stress (weaning, transport, commingling) exacerbates immunosuppression and bridges colonization to clinical disease.
• Vaccination timing is critical, ideally administered 2-4 weeks before anticipated stress or pathogen exposure to allow for maturation of immune responses; intranasal vaccines can provide rapid local immunity, bypassing maternal antibodies in young calves.
• Production system differences dictate intervention priorities: cow-calf operations focus on colostrum adequacy (10% of body weight in first 24 hours) and pre-weaning vaccination, while stocker and feedlot operations emphasize arrival vaccination, single-source cattle procurement, and low-stress receiving protocols.
• Monitoring program effectiveness relies on metrics like treated-for-BRD rate and chronicity index, with declining rates validating the program and rising rates triggering protocol review, necessitating detailed record-keeping of vaccine administration and disease incidence.
• Vaccine failure can stem from handling errors (cold chain breaches, improper reconstitution), administration technique, or host factors like persistent BVDV infection, requiring careful documentation and investigation beyond simply blaming the product.

Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) remains the most economically significant infectious disease complex affecting beef cattle worldwide. This article provides a decision-oriented reference for practicing veterinarians designing prevention programs for cow-calf, stocker, and feedlot operations. It addresses the scientific basis for intervention, vaccine selection and administration, management of risk factors, and monitoring of program effectiveness. Treatment protocols are outside the scope of this article.

The prevention of BRD rests on a paradox: the causative agents are nearly ubiquitous in cattle populations, yet disease expression is sporadic and heavily influenced by host and environmental factors. Effective prevention therefore requires simultaneous attention to pathogen exposure, immune status, and the stressors that bridge the gap between colonization and clinical disease. This article synthesizes the evidence base for vaccination and management strategies, with attention to the production system differences that alter risk and intervention priorities.

At a Glance

Pathogen Biology and the Rationale for Prevention

The bacterial component of BRD is dominated by Mannheimia hemolytica, a commensal of the bovine nasopharynx that gains access to the lower airway when host defenses are compromised. Serotypes A1 and A6 are the most frequent isolates from pneumonic lungs, and their capacity to cause fibrinous pneumonia depends on a repertoire of virulence factors, of which leukotoxin is pivotal. Leukotoxin-mediated destruction of neutrophils and other leukocytes impairs bacterial clearance and drives the characteriztic pulmonary pathology. Lipopolysaccharide acts synergistically with leukotoxin, amplifying its effects and contributing endotoxic activity. Mannheimia hemolytica and its role in bovine respiratory disease

Viral pathogens function primarily as initiators. Bovine herpesvirus 1 has been shown experimentally to predispose cattle to bacterial pneumonia, and the broader viral-bacterial synergism is well established. Respiratory viruses compromise mucociliary clearance, damage epithelial barriers, and modulate leukocyte function, creating the permissive environment that allows nasopharyngeal commensals to invade the lung. A review of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, shipping fever pneumonia and viral-bacterial synergism Bovine coronavirus adds a further layer of complexity, with respiratory and enteric syndromes linked to closely related antigenic strains. Bovine coronavirus associated syndromes

This biology dictates the prevention strategy. Vaccination cannot eliminate the pathogens, which are endemic in most populations. It can, however, raise the threshold of challenge required to produce disease, reduce the severity of viral priming, and limit bacterial proliferation once pulmonary invasion occurs. The objective is not sterilizing immunity but functional protection at the moment of peak risk.

Host Defense and the Stress Interface

The bovine respiratory tract maintains a multilayered defense: physical barriers, mucociliary clearance, resident and recruited leukocytes, and both mucosal and systemic antibody responses. Stress disrupts these layers through glucocorticoid-mediated immunosuppression, altered neutrophil function, and impaired lymphocyte responses. The shipping fever complex is the classic expression of this interaction, where weaning, transport, commingling, and dietary change converge with pathogen exposure. Control methods for bovine respiratory disease for feedlot cattle

The practical implication is that vaccination and stress management are complementary, not alternative, interventions. A vaccine administered at the moment of maximal stress may fail to generate an adequate response, while excellent management cannot compensate for absent or waning immunity. Program design must therefore sequence interventions so that immune priming occurs before the stressor, not during it.

Production System Variation in Risk and Intervention

The epidemiology of BRD differs meaningfully between cow-calf, stocker, and feedlot segments. Dairy calves experience peak risk in the pre-weaning period, where failure of passive transfer and environmental pathogen load are dominant. Control, management, and prevention of bovine respiratory disease in dairy calves and cows In beef cow-calf operations, the highest-risk transition is weaning, particularly when it coincides with marketing and transport. Feedlot cattle face the compounded stressors of long-distance transport, commingling from multiple sources, and abrupt ration change.

These differences alter the relative weight given to vaccination versus management. In the cow-calf segment, colostrum management and pre-weaning vaccination of the calf are primary. In the feedlot, arrival vaccination, source cattle selection, and low-stress receiving protocols take precedence. Control methods for bovine respiratory disease for feedlot cattle The veterinarian's role is to match the intervention portfolio to the specific risk architecture of the operation.

Immunologic Principles Underpinning Vaccine Selection

Vaccine selection requires an understanding of the immune responses that protect the bovine lung. Systemic IgG supports hematogenous spread of pathogens but is less effective at mucosal surfaces. Intranasal vaccines generate local IgA and interferon responses, which can be valuable for early protection in young calves and at arrival. Killed vaccines offer safety and flexibility in timing but typically require two doses for primary immunization. Modified-live vaccines generate stronger cell-mediated responses and often require only a single dose in previously vaccinated or naturally exposed cattle.

The evidence base for specific vaccine components has evolved substantially. Traditional M. hemolytica bacterins failed to demonstrate protection, and their use was associated with adverse reactions. Modern vaccines target leukotoxin and other virulence factors, with improved efficacy. Mannheimia hemolytica and its role in bovine respiratory disease Similarly, the inclusion of BVDV2 in multivalent vaccines and the development of BRSV and Pasteurella multocida components reflect the expanding understanding of the pathogen complex. Bovine respiratory disease research 1983 to 2009

The Prevention Framework

A comprehensive BRD prevention program operates at three levels. Primary prevention reduces pathogen exposure through biosecurity, source cattle selection, and management of commingling. Secondary prevention enhances host resistance through vaccination, colostrum management, and nutrition. Tertiary prevention, which borders on early treatment, involves surveillance and rapid identification of affected animals to limit spread and chronicity. The remainder of this article addresses the first two levels in operational detail, with the vaccine selection process covered in a companion article.

Vaccination Program Design by Production Stage

Vaccination programs must be matched to the production system, the pathogen profile of the operation, and the timing of anticipated stress events. A single protocol cannot serve cow-calf, stocker, and feedlot operations equally, and the evidence base for vaccine efficacy differs across these settings. Bovine respiratory disease research from 1983 to 2009 documents that prevention by vaccination and management prior to pathogen exposure minimizes disease and provides economic incentives for certified health programs, but the same review notes that emerging viral strains and new antigenic variants require periodic reassessment of vaccine selection.

Cow-Calf Operations

The primary objective in cow-calf herds is to ensure that calves enter the post-weaning period with a functional memory response to the core viral pathogens: bovine herpesvirus 1, bovine viral diarrhea virus types 1 and 2, parainfluenza 3, and bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Modified-live viral vaccines are generally preferred in this setting because they generate broader cell-mediated and humoral responses than killed products, but they cannot be used in pregnant animals unless the label specifically permits it. Killed viral vaccines remain the safe choice for the breeding herd where pregnancy status is uncertain.

Pre-weaning vaccination, administered at least two to three weeks before weaning, allows the calf to develop immunity while maternal antibody interference has waned and before the stress of maternal separation. Calves that received a priming dose pre-weaning respond more consistently to a booster at processing. For bacterial components, the evidence for Mannheimia hemolytica vaccines is strongest when the product is given before anticipated high-risk exposure, because the leukotoxin antigen is the pivotal virulence factor in the pathogenesis of fibrinous pneumonia. The review of Mannheimia hemolytica and bovine respiratory disease notes that traditional bacterins failed to demonstrate protection, whereas modern leukotoxin-based products have improved the outlook, though field efficacy still varies with timing and challenge intensity.

Stocker and Backgrounding Operations

Stocker calves are often assembled from multiple sources, which makes vaccination history unreliable and pathogen exposure diverse. The decision to vaccinate on arrival must balance the benefit of early antigen exposure against the risk of vaccinating an animal already incubating disease. Calves that are febrile, depressed, or showing signs of respiratory disease on arrival should be set aside for examination and treatment instead of vaccinated. Healthy arrivals can receive a modified-live viral vaccine and a Mannheimia hemolytica toxoid on arrival, but the operator should expect that protection will not be complete for 10 to 14 days.

Single-source calves with a documented pre-weaning vaccination history present a different risk profile. Control methods for bovine respiratory disease in feedlot cattle emphasize that purchasing single-source cattle with a history of pre- and post-weaning procedures minimizes pathogen exposure and enhances immunity. For these calves, a booster on arrival may be sufficient, and the additional cost and labor of a full arrival protocol can be redirected toward monitoring and pen management.

Feedlot Arrival Programs

Feedlot arrival protocols are the most time-sensitive vaccination setting. The interval between arrival and processing should be as short as practical, because commingling and transport stress begin the immunosuppressive cascade immediately. The processing crew should be trained to assess each animal for depression, nasal discharge, cough, and elevated rectal temperature before vaccination. Any animal with a temperature above the operation's established threshold, typically 39.7 to 40.0 degrees C depending on the source and season, should be diverted to a hospital pen for individual assessment.

The choice between modified-live and killed viral vaccines at feedlot arrival depends on the expected duration of the feeding period and the timing of the highest respiratory challenge. For calves entering a short feeding period of 90 to 120 days, a single modified-live product on arrival is usually adequate. For long-yearling systems or calves that will be re-implanted and moved between pens, a booster at re-processing may be warranted. Bacterial vaccines for Mannheimia hemolytica are most commonly given on arrival, but revaccination is rarely performed in feedlot settings because of labor costs and the diminishing returns of a second dose within a short feeding period.

Dairy Calves

Dairy calf vaccination differs from beef systems because the primary risk period is the pre-weaning and immediate post-weaning phase, and maternal antibody interference is a dominant concern. Control, management, and prevention of bovine respiratory disease in dairy calves and cows identifies BRD as the principal cause of death in weaned dairy calves and notes that incidence rates have remained essentially unchanged over two decades, which suggests that vaccination alone has not solved the problem in this sector.

Intranasal modified-live vaccines are frequently used in dairy calves from two weeks of age because they bypass maternal antibody interference at the mucosal surface and induce local immunity rapidly. These products are particularly useful when calves are moved into group housing or when weather events create a spike in environmental stress. Systemic modified-live vaccination is typically deferred until four to six months of age, when maternal antibody has declined and the calf can mount a durable response. Killed vaccines may be used earlier, but the duration of immunity is shorter and the number of doses required is higher.

Vaccine Handling and Administration Technique

Vaccine failure is frequently a handling problem instead of a product problem. Modified-live viral vaccines must be reconstituted with the supplied diluent at the correct temperature and used within the manufacturer's specified time, typically one to two hours. Exposure to sunlight, heat, or freezing degrades the antigen. Draw only the amount needed for the immediate group of animals and keep the remainder refrigerated in a cooler until use.

Needle selection and injection site affect both efficacy and carcass quality. Subcutaneous administration in the neck is preferred for most products because it reduces injection-site lesions in valuable cuts. Needles should be changed at a frequency that prevents the spread of blood-borne pathogens, and a new needle should be used for every animal when there is any concern about bovine leukosis virus transmission. Multi-dose syringes must be cleaned according to the manufacturer's instructions, because residual disinfectant can inactivate modified-live vaccines.

Management Practices That Reduce BRD Risk

Vaccination cannot compensate for management failures. The following checklist represents the practices with the strongest evidence base for reducing BRD risk across production systems.

The interaction between stress and host defense is well documented. The review of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis and shipping fever pneumonia established that Pasteurella hemolytica and P. multocida are involved in most cases but require additional factors to initiate disease, and bovine herpesvirus 1 was shown experimentally to be one such factor. Management practices that reduce viral transmission and stress-induced immunosuppression therefore act synergistically with vaccination to prevent the viral-bacterial cascade that produces clinical pneumonia.

Monitoring and Documentation

Monitoring parameters should be defined before the animals arrive, not improvised during the outbreak. The operation should establish a case definition for BRD, a treatment threshold, and a recording system that captures the date, pen, animal identification, clinical signs, temperature, and intervention. This record becomes the basis for evaluating vaccine efficacy and for adjusting the protocol in subsequent groups.

Pen riders or animal health technicians should be trained to recognize the early signs of BRD: depression, reduced feed intake, nasal discharge, cough, and increased respiratory effort. The California Calf Health Scoring system, which assigns points for nasal discharge, ocular discharge, cough, and rectal temperature, is a validated tool that standardizes detection across observers. For feedlot cattle, the DART system (depression, appetite, respiration, temperature) provides a similar framework. The threshold for pulling an animal from the pen should be set low enough to catch disease early but high enough to avoid processing healthy animals unnecessarily.

Documentation should also include vaccine lot numbers, expiration dates, and the number of doses administered per pen. This information is essential when investigating a suspected vaccine failure or an adverse event. USDA APHIS animal health information provides national program guidance on disease surveillance and reporting that may apply when unusual mortality or morbidity patterns emerge.

Biosecurity and Regional Considerations

Biosecurity operates at two levels in BRD prevention. At the herd level, the goal is to prevent the introduction of new pathogens, particularly bovine viral diarrhea virus persistently infected animals, which serve as continuous shedders. Testing incoming cattle for persistent BVDV infection is a cost-effective intervention in high-risk groups. At the regional level, disease control programs and movement standards may affect vaccination requirements, and WOAH terrestrial animal health standards provide international guidance on surveillance and trade-related health measures. Veterinarians should consult the relevant national and regional authorities for current requirements, as these vary by jurisdiction and commodity status.

Recognized Complications and Failure Modes

Vaccination programs fail through predictable pathways, and early detection depends on distinguishing vaccine failure from program failure. The most common complication is the outbreak of clinical BRD within 14 days of arrival vaccination. This does not necessarily indicate a defective product. Modified-live viral vaccines require 7 to 10 days to generate protective interferon and cell-mediated responses, and animals incubating infection at processing will still develop disease. The discriminating question is whether morbidity clusters in animals vaccinated fewer than 10 days earlier or spreads across cohorts vaccinated 3 or more weeks prior.

A second failure mode is the anaphylactoid reaction, typically occurring within minutes to hours of injection. Acute collapse, dyspnea, urticaria, and salivation distinguish this from post-vaccinal fever. Epinephrine is the first-line intervention, and affected animals should not receive subsequent doses of the same product. The herd-level response is to review product selection, particularly in calves with prior sensitization to tissue-culture-derived antigens.

Suppurative injection-site abscesses and clostridial myositis present as local swelling, lameness, or fever 3 to 10 days after administration. These complications trace to contaminated needles, dirty injection sites, or improper route. Detection relies on daily observation of processing cohorts, not on passive reporting.

Persistent infection with bovine viral diarrhea virus represents a distinct failure mode. Vaccination of persistently infected calves does not clear the infection, and these animals continue to shed virus and amplify transmission despite appearing clinically normal. Detection requires antigen-capture ELISA or PCR on ear-notch or blood samples, ideally before arrival. The economic consequence of missing one persistently infected calf in a high-risk pen is substantial, as it can undermine the immunity of the entire group. Research on BRD control has identified persistently infected BVDV cattle as a key target for detection and removal Fulton RW, bovine respiratory disease research 1983-2009.

Common Errors and Corrective Actions

The most frequent error in program design is treating vaccination as a standalone intervention. Vaccines reduce disease severity and viral amplification, but they do not overcome poor colostrum management, commingling of stressed calves, or prolonged transport. The corrective action is to audit the entire risk pathway, from colostrum through arrival processing, before changing vaccine products. Success in building disease resistance begins with genetic selection and continues with colostrum management and reducing pathogen exposure Edwards TA, control methods for bovine respiratory disease for feedlot cattle.

A second error is the indiscriminate mixing of modified-live and killed products within the same processing protocol without verifying label compatibility. Some combinations require sequential administration, and concurrent use can blunt the immune response to one component. The corrective action is to follow the label sequence and to document the exact products, serial numbers, and administration times for each cohort.

A third error is the failure to revaccinate according to the label's booster interval. Many practitioners assume that a single dose of a modified-live viral vaccine provides lifetime immunity. In practice, the duration of protection varies by antigen and product, and the label specifies the interval for revaccination. The corrective action is to record the expected duration of immunity for each product and to schedule boosters accordingly.

A fourth error is the neglect of vaccine cold-chain integrity. Products stored at improper temperatures or exposed to direct sunlight lose potency without visible change. The corrective action is to monitor storage temperatures continuously, to use insulated coolers during field administration, and to discard any product of uncertain thermal history.

Limitations of the Evidence and Areas of Disagreement

The evidence base for BRD prevention has advanced substantially, but important gaps remain. The role of Mycoplasma bovis in vaccine failure is contested. Some authorities consider it a primary pathogen, while others view it as a secondary invader that complicates viral-bacterial disease. Research has identified Mycoplasma spp., particularly M. bovis, as an area requiring further study, and current vaccines do not reliably protect against it Fulton RW, bovine respiratory disease research 1983-2009.

The efficacy of Mannheimia hemolytica vaccines remains a point of disagreement. Traditional bacterins failed to demonstrate protection, and their use was associated with adverse reactions. Modern leukotoxin-based products perform better, but field efficacy varies with timing relative to exposure and with the serotype involved. The principal bacterium isolated from respiratory disease in feedlot cattle is M. hemolytica, and its leukotoxin is pivotal in the induction of pneumonia, which explains why vaccines targeting this virulence factor are more effective than whole-cell bacterins Rice JA et al, Mannheimia hemolytica and bovine respiratory disease.

Expert opinion also differs on the value of metaphylaxis at arrival. Some practitioners advocate routine antimicrobial use for high-risk calves, while others reserve it for animals with clinical signs. The evidence does not settle this question, and the decision should be made at the operation level based on historical morbidity, procurement source, and antimicrobial stewardship goals.

Escalation, Referral, and Reporting

Most BRD prevention work occurs at the herd level, but certain circumstances warrant escalation. A morbidity outbreak exceeding 20 percent of a processing cohort within 14 days of arrival, despite adherence to the vaccination protocol, justifies laboratory investigation. Submit nasal swabs, deep nasopharyngeal swabs, and lung tissue from acute fatalities for viral PCR, bacterial culture, and histopathology. The goal is to identify the specific pathogens involved and to test bacterial isolates for antimicrobial susceptibility.

Persistent BVDV screening should be escalated to a diagnostic laboratory when commingled high-risk calves are sourced from multiple auctions. Ear-notch samples are the preferred specimen, and results should guide removal decisions before the calves enter the general population.

Regulatory reporting obligations vary by jurisdiction. Foreign animal disease suspicion, particularly for diseases with vesicular or neurologic signs that mimic endemic BRD pathogens, must be reported to the relevant animal health authority. The World Organization for Animal Health maintains international standards for disease notification and surveillance, and practitioners should be familiar with the reporting requirements in their region WOAH terrestrial animal health standards. National programs for livestock disease control and surveillance are described by the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, and these programs define the reporting pathways for notifiable diseases USDA APHIS animal health information.

Referral to a specialist is appropriate when the operation experiences recurrent BRD despite correct vaccination, management, and biosecurity. A veterinary epidemiologist or food-animal medicine specialist can conduct a comprehensive risk assessment, review diagnostic records, and redesign the prevention program. This referral is not an admission of failure but a recognition that multifactorial disease syndromes sometimes require a broader analytical lens than a single practitioner can apply.

Frequently Asked Questions

How should I prioritize vaccination when the operation has a limited per-head budget?

Prioritize interventions that address the pathogens and risk periods most strongly associated with clinical disease in that specific operation. For most feedlot and stocker settings, this means ensuring viral priming against bovine herpesvirus 1, bovine viral diarrhea virus, and bovine respiratory syncytial virus before or at arrival, with bacterial components directed at Mannheimia hemolytica where the historical risk is documented. Yates' review of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis and shipping fever pneumonia established that viral-bacterial synergy drives most clinical outbreaks, so a complete viral program with a single bacterial component generally outperforms a partial viral program with multiple bacterial antigens. Redirect funds toward colostrum management and low-stress handling before adding vaccine antigens of marginal local relevance. Document the rationale for each omission so the plan remains defensible when disease occurs.

What is the minimum acceptable cold chain when portable coolers are the only option?

A closed insulated cooler with frozen gel packs separated from vaccine vials by cardboard or towelling maintains acceptable temperatures for several hours in moderate ambient conditions. Never place vaccine directly on frozen packs, as contact freezing damages modified-live virus products irreversibly. Carry a thermometer inside the cooler and record temperatures at departure and at each vaccination point. Discard any product exposed to temperatures outside the labelled range, and consult the MSD Veterinary Manual's vaccine handling guidance for product-specific stability data. Reconstitute modified-live vaccines only as needed, protect them from direct sunlight, and use them within the manufacturer's stated time after reconstitution. If the cold chain cannot be guaranteed, select killed products for that session even if the overall program prefers modified-live formulations.

How do I adapt these recommendations for a dairy calf operation instead of a feedlot?

Dairy calves face the same viral and bacterial pathogens but with different timing and host factors. Colostrum management becomes the highest-yield intervention, as failure of passive transfer is the dominant predisposing factor in this population. Gorden and Plummer's review of BRD control in dairy calves and cows notes that BRD remains the principal cause of death in weaned dairy calves despite decades of vaccine availability, which points to management instead of immunization as the limiting factor. Vaccinate calves after maternal antibody has waned sufficiently to permit active responses, typically from three to four weeks of age for intranasal products and later for parenteral modified-live vaccines. Group housing with adequate airspace and bedding management replaces the arrival processing model used in beef systems. Biosecurity against introduction of new viral strains matters more than in closed beef herds.

What records should I keep to evaluate whether the prevention program is working?

Track vaccine product, lot number, route, dose, and storage temperatures for every vaccination event, plus the age or weight of animals vaccinated. Maintain a disease register that records each BRD case, the days from arrival or birth to diagnosis, the diagnostic method used, and the outcome. Calculate the cumulative incidence and case fatality rate by cohort and by source of cattle. USDA APHIS livestock disease information provides standardized reporting frameworks that align with national surveillance expectations. Review these records at least quarterly and compare current cohorts against historical baselines for the same operation. A rising case fatality rate with stable incidence suggests a diagnostic or treatment timing problem, while rising incidence with stable fatality points to a breakdown in prevention, often traceable to a specific vaccine lot or handling error.

How should I explain a vaccine failure to a producer who believes the product is defective?

Begin by separating vaccine efficacy from vaccine effectiveness. A product can be immunogenic in controlled trials yet fail in the field because of timing, handling, or host factors. Review the cold chain records, the interval between vaccination and natural challenge, and the age and passive immunity status of the affected animals. Fulton's review of BRD research from 1983 to 2009 documents that persistently infected bovine viral diarrhea virus cattle and emerging viral strains can overwhelm otherwise adequate vaccine programs. Present the investigation as a systematic search for the weakest link instead of a defense of the product. If the producer demands a change, recommend switching to a different product class or manufacturer only after the management audit is complete, since changing products without correcting the underlying failure will repeat the same outcome.

When should I involve regulatory or veterinary authorities in a BRD outbreak?

Involve authorities when the outbreak pattern suggests a notifiable pathogen, when mortality exceeds expected baselines by a wide margin, or when the operation ships animals across state or national borders. WOAH terrestrial animal health standards define reporting obligations for listed diseases that may present with respiratory signs. Consult the relevant national veterinary service early instead of late, since delayed reporting can compromise trade status and disease control options. Also involve authorities if you suspect vaccine failure due to a manufacturing defect, as adverse event reporting systems depend on practitioner submissions. For routine outbreaks that stay within expected parameters, document the event thoroughly and use it as a learning opportunity, but reserve formal reporting for situations that meet the defined criteria.

Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

• Rumen Health Assessment in Dairy Cows: Clinical and Subclinical Indicators
• Mastitis Control Programs in Dairy Herds: Monitoring and Prevention
• Swine Nutrition and Health: Feed-Related Disease Diagnosis

References and Further Reading

• A review of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, shipping fever pneumonia and viral-bacterial synergism in respiratory disease of cattle.. 1982.
• Control, management, and prevention of bovine respiratory disease in dairy calves and cows.. 2010.
• Mannheimia hemolytica and bovine respiratory disease.. 2007.
• Control methods for bovine respiratory disease for feedlot cattle.. 2010.
• Bovine coronavirus associated syndromes.. 2010.
• Bovine respiratory disease research (1983-2009).. 2009.
• USDA APHIS Animal Health Information. USDA APHIS.
• FAO Animal Production and Health. FAO.
• MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition. MSD Veterinary Manual.

Related Articles

• Bovine Respiratory Disease Vaccine Selection: A Comparative Guide
• Differential Diagnosis of Acute Bovine Respiratory Disease in Feedlot Cattle
• Diagnostic Approach to Respiratory Disease in Sheep and Goats
• Calf Health Scoring Chart: Application for Respiratory Disease Detection
• Feedlot Health Management: Arrival Protocols and Disease Surveillance

This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.