Equine Hoof Care: Anatomy, Trimming, and Shoeing

This article provides an evidence-led overview of equine hoof anatomy, routine trimming and shoeing principles, and common hoof problems for horse owners, veterinary students, veterinary technicians, and veterinary professionals. The content supports collaboration between veterinarians and farriers and helps owners recognize when professional assessment is needed. The hoof is a complex structure that bears substantial forces during locomotion, and its health directly affects the horse's comfort, soundness, and overall welfare. Understanding normal anatomy, recognizing abnormalities early, and maintaining a consistent hoof care schedule are foundational responsibilities of horse ownership.

At a Glance: Equine Hoof Care Priorities

Functional Anatomy of the Equine Hoof

The equine foot is defined as the epidermal hoof capsule and all structures enveloped by that capsule, according to the Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria terminology used in a 2021 review of foot anatomy and physiology in The Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice. The hoof capsule is composed of modified epidermis and dermis and is vital for protecting the third phalanx from the forces of locomotion, as described in a 2021 Toxicologic Pathology review of the equine hoof, laminitis, and progenitor cells.

The hoof wall is the visible outer structure that grows continuously from the coronary band. The wall is thickest at the toe and thins toward the heels. The sole forms the ground surface of the foot and is slightly concave in the normal hoof. The frog is a triangular, elastic structure located between the heels that aids in shock absorption and traction. The white line is the junction between the sole and the inner layer of the hoof wall and serves as an important landmark for farriers when placing nails.

Internal structures include the distal phalanx, also called the third phalanx or pedal bone, which is suspended within the hoof capsule by the lamellae. The lamellae are interlocking epidermal and dermal folds that connect the hoof wall to the underlying bone. Damage within these intricate dermal and epidermal connections is often associated with lifelong changes in hoof growth, repair, and conformation, as noted in the 2021 Toxicologic Pathology review. The digital cushion, a fibrocartilaginous structure in the caudal foot, and the lateral cartilages contribute to shock absorption and support the heel region.

The vascular supply to the hoof is extensive and supports continuous growth and repair. The veins of the hoof wall have been described in anatomical studies, including a 1983 Journal of Anatomy paper on extrinsic and intrinsic veins of the equine hoof wall. The internal hoof morphology of the phalanges has also been examined, with a 2009 study describing the internal structure of the first, second, and third phalanges in equine feet. Understanding this vascular and skeletal anatomy helps explain why injuries to the foot can have serious consequences and why prompt veterinary assessment is important.

The hoof grows continuously throughout the horse's life. Growth rate varies with age, nutrition, season, and individual genetics. The hoof capsule reflects the health of the horse over the preceding months, and abnormalities in hoof wall quality may indicate nutritional deficiencies, systemic disease, or chronic laminitis. Keratins, the structural proteins of the hoof, include specific types that are restricted to the hoof epidermal lamellae, as described in a 2019 PLOS ONE study on equine keratins K42 and K124. This specialized protein expression contributes to the strength and resilience of the hoof wall.

The Role of the Farrier in Hoof Health

Regular farrier care is the cornerstone of equine hoof health. The farrier trims the hoof to maintain proper balance, shape, and length and applies shoes when needed for protection, traction, or therapeutic purposes. The veterinarian and farrier should work as a team, particularly when managing hoof disease or lameness. Therapeutic farriery is a specialized area of practice that addresses hoof abnormalities and supports recovery from injury or disease, as described in a 2012 review in The Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice.

The interval between farrier visits depends on the individual horse's hoof growth rate, the type of work the horse performs, and the presence of any hoof abnormalities. Most horses require trimming every 6 to 8 weeks. Horses with certain conditions, such as laminitis or white line disease, may need more frequent attention. Owners should schedule the next appointment before the current trim becomes overdue, because overgrown hooves can alter the horse's stance, strain tendons and ligaments, and predispose the horse to lameness.

A routine farrier visit includes inspection of the hooves, trimming of the wall, sole, and frog, and assessment of foot balance. The farrier evaluates the horse's conformation and movement to determine the appropriate trim for each foot. When shoes are applied, the farrier selects the shoe type and material based on the horse's activity, footing, and any therapeutic needs. The fit of the shoe, the placement of nails, and the clinches are checked to ensure the shoe is secure and comfortable.

Owners should observe their horse's hooves between farrier visits and report any concerns to the farrier or veterinarian. Loose shoes, risen clinches, cracks, or changes in hoof shape should be addressed promptly. A lost shoe can cause bruising or damage to the sole and should be reported to the farrier, who can replace it or advise on temporary measures.

Routine Hoof Trimming Principles

The goal of routine trimming is to maintain a balanced foot that distributes weight evenly and allows natural breakover. The trim should preserve the integrity of the hoof wall, sole, and frog while removing excess growth that could interfere with normal function. The farrier assesses the foot from multiple angles, including the dorsal wall, the heels, and the solar surface, to determine the correct trim.

Foot balance involves both mediolateral and dorsopalmar or dorsoplantar components. Mediolateral balance refers to the evenness of the foot from side to side, while dorsopalmar or dorsoplantar balance refers to the relationship between the toe and the heel. An unbalanced foot can cause uneven wear, strain on the joints and soft tissues of the limb, and lameness. The farrier uses visual assessment and, in some cases, hoof testers to evaluate balance and identify sensitive areas.

The sole should be trimmed conservatively. Overzealous sole removal can thin the sole and increase sensitivity to bruising. The frog should also be trimmed carefully, removing only loose, flaking tissue. The bars of the heel should be maintained to support the caudal foot. The white line should be inspected for separation, which can indicate white line disease or laminitis.

The angle of the hoof wall relative to the ground is an important consideration. The normal hoof angle varies with the individual horse and its conformation. The farrier aims to achieve an angle that matches the horse's pastern angle and supports the limb's weight-bearing axis. Trimming that is too aggressive at the toe or heel can alter the hoof angle and place abnormal stress on the deep digital flexor tendon and the navicular apparatus.

Shoeing Options and Material Considerations

Shoeing decisions depend on the horse's intended use, the footing conditions, and any existing hoof or limb problems. Some horses perform well barefoot, while others require shoes for protection or traction. The decision to shoe or leave a horse barefoot should be made on an individual basis, considering the horse's workload, hoof quality, and comfort.

Steel shoes are the most common type and provide durability and protection for horses working on hard or abrasive surfaces. Aluminum shoes are lighter and are often used for performance horses, particularly racehorses, where weight is a consideration. The choice of shoe material can affect gait characteristics. A 2025 study in Animals compared gait characteristics of horses without shoes, with steel shoes, and with aluminum shoes at a trot on asphalt and soft footing. The study found that shoe weight affected hoof arc height during early and late swing phases, with aluminum shoes producing different hoof arc heights than steel shoes. No significant effects of shoeing were detected for gait symmetry, mediolateral hoof deviation, stride length, or stride phase times. These findings indicate that shoe weight can influence the flight of the hoof, which may affect the perceived quality of the gait.

Shoe fit is critical. A shoe that is too small can cause pressure on the hoof wall and sole, while a shoe that is too large can interfere with breakover or be caught on objects. The shoe should be fitted to the hoof, not the hoof to the shoe. Nails should be placed in the white line, avoiding the sensitive structures of the foot. Clinches should be tight and smooth to prevent snagging or injury.

Therapeutic shoeing is used to manage specific conditions, including laminitis, navicular disease, and hoof wall defects. Therapeutic farriery may involve specialized shoes, pads, or modifications to the trim to relieve pressure, support the caudal foot, or improve breakover. The design of a therapeutic shoeing plan should be based on a veterinary diagnosis and should be reviewed regularly to assess progress.

Common Hoof Problems and Recognition

Hoof problems are a major cause of lameness and poor welfare in horses. Early recognition and prompt treatment improve outcomes and reduce the risk of chronic complications. Owners should be familiar with the common hoof conditions and know when to seek veterinary advice.

Laminitis

Laminitis is defined as inflammation of the sensitive hoof tissues, but it is recognized as pathologic changes that may occur with or without inflammatory mediators, as described in a 2021 Toxicologic Pathology review. Laminitis has been described in the earliest records of domesticated horses and can range from mild to serious. Signs can be acute, chronic, or transition from acute, severe inflammation to permanently abnormal tissue. Damage within the lamellae can lead to rotation or sinking of the distal phalanx within the hoof capsule, causing lifelong changes in hoof growth, repair, and conformation.

Laminitis can be classified by its underlying cause. Endocrinopathic laminitis is the predominant form of laminitis occurring in the field, as opposed to laminitis occurring during hospitalization or severe illness, according to a 2010 review in The Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice. Prevalent causes of endocrinopathic laminitis are equine Cushing's syndrome, also called pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction, and equine metabolic syndrome. Exclusion of inflammatory or weight-bearing causes of laminitis and identification and treatment of underlying endocrine conditions improve laminitis management strategies.

Equine metabolic syndrome is a widely recognized collection of risk factors for endocrinopathic laminitis, with insulin dysregulation being the most important risk factor, according to the 2019 ECEIM consensus statement on equine metabolic syndrome in the Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. Clinicians and horse owners must recognize the presence of these risk factors so they can be targeted and controlled to reduce the risk of laminitis attacks. Diagnosis of EMS is based partly on the horse's history and clinical examination findings and partly on laboratory testing. EMS is controlled mainly by dietary strategies and exercise programs that aim to improve insulin regulation and decrease obesity where present. Management of an EMS case is a long-term strategy requiring diligence and discipline by the horse's carer and support and guidance from their veterinarians.

Sepsis-related laminitis is another form of the disease, as described in a 2012 Equine Veterinary Journal publication on sepsis-related laminitis. This form occurs in association with severe systemic illness, such as colitis or pneumonia, and requires intensive veterinary management.

Acute laminitis has been described in the veterinary literature since at least 1972, when a paper on acute laminitis was published in the Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. The clinical signs of acute laminitis include heat in the hooves, increased digital pulses, reluctance to move, and a characteristic stance in which the horse rocks back onto its heels to relieve pressure on the toes. Laminitis is a medical emergency, and any horse showing these signs should be examined by a veterinarian promptly.

White Line Disease

White line disease is a condition in which the inner layer of the hoof wall separates from the underlying structures, allowing dirt, debris, and bacteria to enter the hoof. The condition is also called seedy toe or hoof wall separation. White line disease can cause lameness if the separation extends deep into the hoof or if infection reaches the sensitive structures. The affected hoof wall may appear crumbly or chalky, and the white line may be widened or discolored.

White line disease is managed by trimming away the affected hoof wall, establishing drainage, and protecting the foot from contamination. In severe cases, therapeutic shoeing may be needed to support the foot while the hoof wall regrows. The condition can be difficult to resolve completely, and ongoing farrier care is often required.

Hoof Wall Cracks

Hoof wall cracks can occur for various reasons, including trauma, poor foot balance, dry or brittle hoof wall, or underlying laminitis. Cracks are classified by their location and depth. A superficial crack that does not involve the sensitive structures may be managed with trimming and attention to foot balance. A deep crack that reaches the sensitive lamellae can cause bleeding, lameness, and infection and requires veterinary assessment.

Pathological hoof-wall cavities unrelated to nailing, called Gidoh in Japan, have been studied in racehorses at Japan Racing Association training centers. A 2026 study in the Journal of Equine Science surveyed all racehorses stabled at JRA training centers in spring and autumn of 2020 and reaffirmed that this foot problem occurred most frequently in horses aged 6 years or older, with no gender predilection. It occurred preferentially in the toe of the fore-hoof. White-line-fissure-type Gidoh was predominant, and about 80% of cases were mild. The prevalence was significantly lower in October than in April. The recent trend in the prevalence of Gidoh was similar to that in a 2001 survey, suggesting that routine hoof management at the JRA facilities has been stable for the past 19 years.

Bruised Sole and Abscess

A bruised sole results from trauma to the sole, often caused by stones, uneven footing, or excessive sole trimming. The bruise appears as a red or dark discoloration of the sole and can cause lameness. Rest and protection of the foot usually allow the bruise to resolve.

A hoof abscess is a localized infection within the hoof that causes severe, sudden lameness. The horse may be non-weight-bearing on the affected limb, and the hoof may be warm with an increased digital pulse. Abscesses often resolve once the infection is drained, which may require veterinary or farrier intervention. The drainage site should be kept clean and protected until healing is complete.

Overgrown Hooves and Neglect

Overgrown hooves are a sign of inadequate farrier care and can cause significant welfare problems. The hoof wall may curl, the heels may underrun, and the hoof angle may become abnormal. Overgrown hooves alter the horse's stance and movement, strain the tendons and ligaments, and predispose the horse to lameness and other hoof problems.

Hoof neglect is a welfare concern. A 2026 study in Veterinary Sciences assessed the welfare of working horses in South Darfur, Sudan, by integrating clinical examination with indirect indicators through owner interviews. Clinical assessment revealed that 25.0% of horses showed poor hoof health, and many exhibited gait abnormalities. The findings highlighted poor physical, behavioral, and management conditions among working horses, emphasizing the urgent need for owner education and training programs. A 2026 study in Frontiers in Veterinary Science evaluated the welfare of horses in draft competitions in Spain and found hoof overgrowth in 19.4% of horses, although most horses showed adequate body condition and a low incidence of harness-related injuries.

Hoof Health Assessment Checklist

A systematic hoof health assessment can be performed by owners, veterinary technicians, and veterinarians. The assessment should be conducted in a safe environment with the horse properly restrained. The following checklist covers the key observations for each hoof.

The assessment should be performed at least weekly for all horses and daily for horses with known hoof problems or those recovering from laminitis. Any abnormal finding should be documented and discussed with the veterinarian or farrier.

Records and Measurements for Hoof Care

Maintaining accurate records of hoof care supports early recognition of problems and effective communication between the owner, farrier, and veterinarian. Records should include the date of each farrier visit, the type of trim or shoeing performed, any abnormalities observed, and the horse's response to treatment.

Photographs of the hooves taken from the front, side, and solar surface at each farrier visit provide a visual record of changes over time. The photographs should be taken in consistent lighting and from consistent angles to allow comparison. Hoof measurements, such as hoof angle, heel height, and toe length, can be recorded to track changes and guide trimming decisions.

A hoof care log can be maintained in a notebook or digital spreadsheet. The log should include the following information for each visit:

• Date of the farrier visit
• Name of the farrier
• Type of service performed, such as trim only or trim and shoe
• Shoe type and material if shoes were applied
• Any abnormalities observed, such as cracks, separation, or bruising
• Any treatments applied, such as hoof dressings or topical medications
• The horse's lameness score or gait assessment before and after the visit
• Any recommendations from the farrier or veterinarian
• The date of the next scheduled visit

Records of hoof problems, including laminitis episodes, should be maintained for the life of the horse. This history informs future management decisions and helps the veterinary team understand the horse's risk factors and response to treatment.

Common Failure Patterns in Hoof Care

Hoof care failures often follow recognizable patterns. Understanding these patterns helps owners and professionals prevent problems and intervene early.

Infrequent or Irregular Trimming

The most common failure pattern is infrequent or irregular trimming. When the interval between farrier visits is too long, the hoof becomes overgrown, and the foot balance is compromised. Overgrown hooves can cause the heels to underrun, the toe to become long, and the hoof angle to become shallow. These changes strain the deep digital flexor tendon and the navicular apparatus and can lead to chronic lameness.

Owners should schedule the next farrier visit before the current trim becomes overdue. A reminder system, such as a calendar alert or a note on the feed room door, helps maintain the schedule. If a farrier is unavailable, the owner should contact other farriers in the area or discuss interim management with the veterinarian.

Aggressive Trimming

Aggressive trimming is the opposite failure pattern. Removing too much hoof wall, sole, or frog can cause pain, bruising, and sensitivity. Over-trimming the sole thins the protective layer and increases the risk of bruising on hard or stony ground. Over-trimming the frog removes its shock-absorbing function and can expose sensitive tissue.

A skilled farrier trims conservatively, removing only the excess growth and preserving the structures that protect the foot. Owners should be cautious of farriers who remove large amounts of hoof material or who promise to correct conformational problems through aggressive trimming.

Improper Shoe Fit

Improper shoe fit can cause pressure points, bruising, and lameness. A shoe that is too small can pinch the hoof wall and sole, while a shoe that is too large can interfere with breakover or be caught on objects. Nails placed too close to the sensitive structures can cause pain and infection.

Owners should observe the horse after shoeing and report any signs of discomfort or lameness to the farrier. The shoe should be checked regularly for wear, looseness, and risen clinches. A lost shoe should be reported to the farrier promptly, and the horse should be kept on soft footing until the shoe is replaced.

Ignoring Early Signs of Laminitis

Laminitis can develop rapidly, and early signs may be subtle. Heat in the hooves, increased digital pulses, and a shortened stride at the trot may precede obvious lameness. Owners who ignore these signs risk progression to severe laminitis with rotation or sinking of the distal phalanx.

Any horse showing signs of laminitis should be examined by a veterinarian promptly. The veterinarian can assess the severity of the condition, identify underlying causes, and recommend appropriate management. Early intervention improves the chances of a successful outcome.

Inadequate Nutrition and Weight Management

Hoof health is influenced by nutrition and body condition. Obesity is a risk factor for equine metabolic syndrome and endocrinopathic laminitis. The 2019 ECEIM consensus statement emphasizes that EMS is controlled mainly by dietary strategies and exercise programs that aim to improve insulin regulation and decrease obesity where present. Horses that are overweight or have a history of laminitis should be managed with a controlled diet and regular exercise under veterinary guidance.

Nutritional deficiencies can affect hoof quality. A balanced diet that provides adequate protein, minerals, and vitamins supports healthy hoof growth. Owners should consult with their veterinarian or an equine nutritionist before adding supplements to the horse's diet.

Welfare and Safety Context

Hoof health is a direct component of equine welfare. Hoof disease is a major cause of poor welfare and mortality globally, as described in a 2019 review of hoof disorders and farriery in the donkey in The Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice. Although that review focuses on donkeys and mules, the principles of hoof care and the consequences of hoof disease apply across equids.

The World Organisation for Animal Health addresses animal health and welfare through international standards and guidelines. The WOAH Animal Health and Welfare program supports the development of science-based standards that protect animal health and promote responsible animal care. Hoof care is an essential component of responsible horse management, and owners have a duty to provide regular farrier care and prompt veterinary attention for hoof problems.

Working horses are particularly vulnerable to hoof problems. A 2026 study in Veterinary Sciences assessed the welfare of working horses in South Darfur, Sudan, and found that 25.0% of horses showed poor hoof health. The study emphasized the urgent need for owner education and training programs to improve welfare. A 2026 study in Frontiers in Veterinary Science evaluated horses in draft competitions in Spain and found hoof overgrowth in 19.4% of horses, although most horses showed adequate body condition and no evidence of serious welfare impairments.

Management style also affects hoof health and overall welfare. A 2026 study in Animal Welfare examined the management styles of recreational horse owners in the UK and Ireland, focusing on social interaction, access to suitable forage, and unrestricted movement. The study identified three distinct management styles. Horses in the Horse Centred Management Cluster, which provided 24-hour turn-out, access to a forage source, and interaction with two or more horses, were significantly less likely to exhibit lameness issues compared to horses in more restrictive management styles. This finding supports the importance of allowing horses regular movement and social interaction as part of a hoof health program.

Safety is an important consideration in hoof care. Handling horses for hoof care requires proper restraint and training. Horses that are unaccustomed to having their feet handled may kick or resist, posing a risk to handlers. Owners should train young horses to accept hoof handling gradually and should use appropriate restraint, such as a halter and lead rope, during hoof care procedures. Farriers and veterinarians should follow safe handling practices and use appropriate equipment to prevent injury to themselves and the horse.

Professional Escalation Criteria

Certain hoof problems require prompt veterinary assessment. Owners should contact their veterinarian immediately if they observe any of the following:

• Sudden, severe lameness, especially if the horse is non-weight-bearing on one limb
• Heat in one or more hooves accompanied by increased digital pulses
• A puncture wound to the sole, frog, or coronary band
• Foul odor or discharge from the hoof
• Bleeding from the hoof wall or sole
• Signs of laminitis, including a rocked-back stance, reluctance to move, or shifting weight between feet
• Swelling or heat in the lower limb
• A nail or other foreign object embedded in the hoof
• A loose or shifted shoe that has caused injury to the hoof

Routine concerns, such as minor cracks, overgrown hooves, or uneven wear, can be discussed with the farrier at the next scheduled visit. However, if a routine concern is accompanied by lameness or other signs of pain, veterinary assessment is warranted.

The veterinarian and farrier should communicate regularly about horses with hoof problems. The veterinarian provides the diagnosis and medical management, while the farrier provides the mechanical management through trimming and shoeing. This collaboration is essential for successful outcomes in conditions such as laminitis, white line disease, and hoof wall defects.

Frequently Asked Questions

How often should a horse's hooves be trimmed?

Most horses require trimming every 6 to 8 weeks. The interval depends on the individual horse's hoof growth rate, the type of work the horse performs, and the presence of any hoof abnormalities. Horses with certain conditions, such as laminitis or white line disease, may need more frequent attention. Owners should schedule the next appointment before the current trim becomes overdue, because overgrown hooves can alter the horse's stance, strain tendons and ligaments, and predispose the horse to lameness.

What is the difference between a trim and a shoeing?

A trim involves shaping the hoof wall, sole, and frog to maintain proper balance and length. Shoeing involves trimming the hoof and then attaching a metal or other material shoe to the hoof wall using nails. The decision to shoe or leave a horse barefoot depends on the horse's workload, hoof quality, and comfort. Some horses perform well barefoot, while others require shoes for protection or traction on hard or abrasive surfaces.

How can I tell if my horse has laminitis?

Signs of laminitis include heat in the hooves, increased digital pulses, reluctance to move, and a characteristic stance in which the horse rocks back onto its heels to relieve pressure on the toes. The horse may show a shortened stride at the trot or be non-weight-bearing on one or more limbs. Laminitis is a medical emergency, and any horse showing these signs should be examined by a veterinarian promptly.

What should I do if my horse loses a shoe?

A lost shoe should be reported to the farrier promptly. The horse should be kept on soft footing until the shoe is replaced to avoid bruising or damage to the sole. The farrier can replace the shoe or advise on temporary measures. If the horse becomes lame after losing a shoe, veterinary assessment may be needed to rule out injury to the sole or hoof wall.

What is white line disease?

White line disease is a condition in which the inner layer of the hoof wall separates from the underlying structures, allowing dirt, debris, and bacteria to enter the hoof. The condition is also called seedy toe or hoof wall separation. White line disease can cause lameness if the separation extends deep into the hoof or if infection reaches the sensitive structures. Management involves trimming away the affected hoof wall, establishing drainage, and protecting the foot from contamination.

Can hoof problems be prevented?

Many hoof problems can be prevented through regular farrier care, daily hoof cleaning, appropriate nutrition, and proper management. Maintaining a consistent trimming schedule, providing suitable footing, and monitoring the horse's body condition are key preventive measures. Horses with risk factors for laminitis, such as equine metabolic syndrome, require careful dietary and exercise management under veterinary guidance.

How do I find a qualified farrier?

Owners can ask their veterinarian for a farrier recommendation or contact a professional farrier association for a list of certified farriers in their area. A qualified farrier should have formal training, experience with the type of horse and work being performed, and a willingness to communicate with the veterinarian. Owners should observe the farrier's work and ask questions about their approach to trimming and shoeing.

What is the role of the veterinarian in hoof care?

The veterinarian diagnoses and treats hoof diseases, prescribes medical management, and provides guidance on nutrition and weight management. The farrier provides mechanical management through trimming and shoeing. The veterinarian and farrier should work as a team, particularly when managing hoof disease or lameness. Owners should involve the veterinarian whenever a horse shows signs of lameness, heat in the hooves, or other abnormalities that suggest a hoof problem.

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References and Further Reading

• Merck Veterinary Manual. Merck Veterinary Manual.
• Animal Health and Welfare. World Organisation for Animal Health.
• ECEIM consensus statement on equine metabolic syndrome.. Journal of veterinary internal medicine, 2019.
• Sepsis-related laminitis.. Equine veterinary journal, 2012.
• The Equine Hoof: Laminitis, Progenitor (Stem) Cells, and Therapy Development.. Toxicologic pathology, 2021.
• Acute laminitis.. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 1972.
• Endocrinopathic laminitis.. The Veterinary clinics of North America. Equine practice, 2010.
• Therapeutic farriery.. The Veterinary clinics of North America. Equine practice, 2012.
• Anatomy and Physiology of the Equine Foot.. The Veterinary clinics of North America. Equine practice, 2021.
• Clinical anatomy of the equine foot.. The Veterinary clinics of North America. Equine practice, 1989.
• Trends in the prevalence of Gidoh at Japan Racing Association Training Centers in 2020.. 2026.
• Assessment of the Welfare of Working Horses: Combining Clinical Evaluations with Indirect Indicators.. 2026.
• Ethological and clinical evaluation of the welfare of horses in draft competitions in Spain.. 2026.
• Case Report: Oral and topical chronic administration of THC-rich and CBD-rich cannabis oil as palliative care in a rescued horse with open wound, sarcoid and chronic pain.. 2026.
• Comparison of Gait Characteristics for Horses Without Shoes, with Steel Shoes, and with Aluminum Shoes.. 2025.
• Friends, forage, freedom: A cluster analysis investigating horse management styles and welfare in the UK and Ireland.. 2026.
• The Anatomy, Histology and Physiology of the Healthy and Lame Equine Hoof. Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology, 2019.
• Extrinsic and intrinsic veins of the equine hoof wall.. Journal of Anatomy, 1983.
• Management of equine hoof injuries.. The Veterinary clinics of North America. Equine practice, 2005.
• Hoof Disorders and Farriery in the Donkey.. The Veterinary clinics of North America. Equine practice, 2019.
• Anatomy and physiology of the inner hoof wall. 2004.
• The Internal Hoof Morphology of the Pl, P2, and P3 bones in equine. 2009.
• UPDATE ON THE ANATOMY OF THE INNER HOOF WALL Dr. 2003.
• Morphovolumetric Analysis of the Hoof in Standardbred Horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 2018.
• The expression of equine keratins K42 and K124 is restricted to the hoof epidermal lamellae of Equus caballus. Plos One, 2019.

This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis or treatment. Contact a veterinarian for advice about an individual animal.