Veterinary Whole Blood Transfusion: Collection and Storage

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-08-11

Key Takeaways

• Whole blood quality is dictated by pre-collection decisions, including donor selection, anticoagulant choice, and collection technique, to ensure transfusion safety and efficacy. Poorly selected donors, inappropriate anticoagulants, or prolonged storage can render transfusions ineffective or harmful.
• The "storage lesion" describes the progressive deterioration of stored whole blood components, including red blood cell metabolic depletion, decreased deformability, and loss of oxygen-carrying capacity, alongside declining platelet function and coagulation factor levels. This necessitates using fresh whole blood for coagulopathy and thrombocytopenia, while stored whole blood is suitable for oxygen-carrying support.
• Anticoagulant-preservative solutions like CPD, CPDA-1, and ACD are critical for preventing clotting and supporting red cell metabolism, with CPDA-1 extending storage duration by supporting ATP synthesis. Accurate anticoagulant-to-blood volume ratios are essential to prevent clots or citrate toxicity.
• Donor selection requires healthy, vaccinated animals with documented hematologic baselines, screened for regionally relevant infectious diseases (e.g., Brucella canis, Ehrlichia, Anaplasma, Babesia, heartworm in dogs; FeLV, FIV, hemotropic Mycoplasma in cats) to prevent iatrogenic pathogen transmission. Blood typing and crossmatching are crucial for compatibility.
• Collection must be performed using a closed, aseptic system with gentle mixing to minimize contamination and mechanical hemolysis, typically via jugular venipuncture. Collection volumes are species- and weight-dependent (10-20% of blood volume) to prevent donor hypovolemia and anemia.
• Refrigeration at 1-6°C is critical for liquid storage, slowing metabolism and preserving red cell function, but storage duration is species- and anticoagulant-dependent, with feline red cells degrading more rapidly. Units must be monitored daily for signs of contamination or hemolysis.

Whole blood transfusion remains a core intervention in veterinary emergency and critical care, yet the quality of the product delivered to the recipient depends entirely on decisions made before the blood leaves the donor. This article addresses the collection, processing, and storage of whole blood for veterinary patients, with emphasis on donor selection, anticoagulant choice, collection technique, and storage physiology. It is written for practicing veterinarians who perform transfusions in clinical practice, whether from in-house donor programs or borrowed donor animals.

The procedural decisions covered here determine transfusion safety and efficacy. A poorly selected donor, an inappropriate anticoagulant, or prolonged storage can render a transfusion ineffective or harmful, regardless of how skilled the administration team is. This first part establishes the scientific foundation for collection and storage, including the physiology of stored blood, the pharmacology of anticoagulant-preservative solutions, and the rationale behind donor screening protocols. Later parts address administration, monitoring, and complication management in detail.

At a Glance

Physiology of Stored Whole Blood

Whole blood is a living tissue, and its components deteriorate continuously from the moment of collection. Red blood cells undergo progressive metabolic depletion, membrane changes, and eventual hemolysis. Platelets lose function within hours of refrigeration and are largely nonviable in stored whole blood. Coagulation factors, particularly factor V and factor VIII, decline steadily during storage. These changes are collectively termed the storage lesion.

The storage lesion has clinical consequences. Stored red cells develop decreased deformability, increased osmotic fragility, and reduced oxygen-delivery capacity. Potassium leaks from red cells into the plasma as the sodium-potassium ATPase pump fails. The pH of the unit falls as lactic acid accumulates. Free hemoglobin and red cell membrane fragments accumulate in the supernatant. For these reasons, fresh whole blood is preferred when thrombocytopenia or coagulopathy is the primary indication, while stored whole blood remains acceptable for oxygen-carrying support.

The rate of storage lesion progression depends on temperature, anticoagulant-preservative solution, and species. Canine red cells stored in CPDA-1 maintain acceptable viability for approximately 20 to 30 days, whereas feline red cells degrade more rapidly and are often recommended for use within 35 days depending on the preservative. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides species-specific storage recommendations that should be consulted before establishing a storage protocol.

Anticoagulant-Preservative Solutions

Anticoagulants prevent clotting by chelating calcium, which is required for the coagulation cascade. Citrate is the universal anticoagulant in veterinary blood banking, available in several formulations that also provide nutrients for red cell metabolism.

Citrate-phosphate-dextrose (CPD) provides citrate for anticoagulation, phosphate as a buffer, and dextrose as an energy substrate. Citrate-phosphate-dextrose-adenine (CPDA-1) adds adenine, which supports ATP synthesis and extends red cell storage. Acid-citrate-dextrose (ACD) is an older formulation with a more acidic pH. The choice of anticoagulant determines the maximum storage duration and the metabolic support available to red cells.

The volume of anticoagulant relative to blood is critical. Under-anticoagulation produces clots, while over-anticoagulation dilutes the unit and may cause citrate toxicity in the recipient, particularly in small patients or those with hepatic dysfunction. Commercial blood collection bags contain a fixed volume of anticoagulant designed for a specified blood volume, and collection should stop when the bag reaches its target weight.

Donor Selection and Screening

Donor selection begins with a thorough history and physical examination. Acceptable donors are healthy, well-hydrated, and free of systemic disease. Body weight must be sufficient to tolerate the collection volume without compromising hemodynamic stability. Most canine donors weigh at least 25 kilograms, and feline donors at least 4 kilograms, though these thresholds vary by practice and regional guidelines.

Infectious disease screening is a non-negotiable component of donor programs. The AVMA practice resources and WOAH terrestrial animal health standards provide guidance on relevant pathogens, which vary by region and species. Canine donors are typically screened for Brucella canis, Ehrlichia species, Anaplasma species, Babesia species, and heartworm. Feline donors are screened for feline leukemia virus, feline immunodeficiency virus, and hemotropic Mycoplasma species. A 1992 survey of small animal practices found that 36 percent of practices did not screen donors for infectious diseases at all, a finding that should not be replicated in modern practice.

Blood typing of donors is strongly recommended, and typing of recipients is essential before transfusion. Crossmatching is indicated when a recipient has previously been transfused or has a history of pregnancy, as these situations increase the risk of sensitization. The AAHA/AAFP Fluid Therapy Guidelines emphasize the importance of compatibility testing in transfusion planning.

Collection Technique

Whole blood is collected by venipuncture into a closed system containing anticoagulant. The jugular vein is the preferred site in most dogs and cats because it accommodates large-bore needles and allows rapid collection. The collection site is clipped and aseptically prepared. A butterfly catheter or commercial blood collection set is connected to the collection bag, and blood is allowed to flow by gravity or gentle negative pressure.

The collection bag should be agitated continuously during collection to ensure thorough mixing of blood with anticoagulant. Collection should be completed within 5 to 10 minutes to minimize platelet activation and clotting factor consumption. The volume collected is calculated from the donor's estimated blood volume, typically 90 mL per kilogram in dogs and 60 to 70 mL per kilogram in cats. A single donation is usually limited to 10 to 20 percent of blood volume, which corresponds to approximately 450 to 500 mL in a 25 kilogram dog.

Mechanical hemolysis during collection is a preventable complication. Small-gauge needles, excessive negative pressure, and turbulent flow through tubing all damage red cells. A study in swine comparing intraosseous and intravenous whole blood transfusion found no significant difference in post-transfusion free hemoglobin between routes, but transfusion time was up to twice as long for the intraosseous route. This finding supports the use of intravenous access for routine transfusion and highlights that delivery route can affect product integrity through prolonged exposure to non-physiologic conditions.

Storage Conditions and Limitations

Whole blood intended for later use is stored refrigerated at 1 to 6 degrees Celsius. The unit must be maintained at this temperature continuously, and temperature monitoring is essential. Storage beyond the recommended duration for the anticoagulant and species increases hemolysis, potassium concentration, and bacterial growth risk.

Blood warmers are used during administration to prevent hypothermia in the recipient, but warming must occur at the time of transfusion, not during storage. Repeated warming and cooling cycles are harmful to red cells and should be avoided. The RECOVER Initiative guidelines address transfusion considerations in the context of cardiopulmonary resuscitation, where rapid access to compatible blood may be life-saving.

Each unit should be labeled with the donor identification, collection date, anticoagulant type, and expiration date. Units that are expired, discolored, or contain visible clots must be discarded. A unit that has been out of refrigeration for more than 30 minutes should not be returned to storage.

The evidence base for optimal storage practices in veterinary medicine is limited compared with human transfusion medicine. Much of what is practiced clinically is extrapolated from human blood banking and adapted to species differences. Practitioners should consult current species-specific references and regional guidelines when establishing storage protocols, and should document their procedures to ensure consistency and traceability.

Collection Equipment and Consumables

The collection system must maintain sterility, meter the anticoagulant accurately, and permit uniform mixing during collection. Commercial closed collection sets designed for veterinary use are preferred over open syringe-and-needle methods because they reduce contamination risk and allow connection to storage or administration sets. For dogs, standard human 450 mL or 500 mL collection bags containing citrate-phosphate-dextrose (CPD), citrate-phosphate-dextrose-adenine (CPDA-1), or citrate-phosphate-double-dextrose (CP2D) are commonly used. For cats and small dogs, pediatric bags or quarter-volume bags are available, though the smaller volume increases the proportional effect of any underfill.

The collection set should include a 16 to 18 gauge needle for dogs and a 19 to 21 gauge butterfly or over-the-needle catheter for cats. A spring scale or electronic balance is essential to measure the collected weight continuously, because the anticoagulant volume is calculated for a specific blood volume and undercollection produces an excess of anticoagulant relative to blood, which can cause hypocalcemia in the recipient. Overcollection produces an inadequate anticoagulant concentration and risks clot formation. The target collection weight is calculated by multiplying the desired blood volume in milliliters by 1.05 to convert to grams.

Needle size and flow characteriztics matter. A needle that is too small for the donor's vein will collapse the vein or produce turbulent flow, increasing shear stress on erythrocytes. Turbulent flow and prolonged collection time are associated with higher hemolysis. The collection line should be primed with anticoagulant before venipuncture, and the bag should be agitated continuously, either manually or on a rocker, to ensure the anticoagulant mixes with blood as it enters.

Donor Preparation and Restraint

The donor should be fasted for 4 to 6 hours before collection to reduce lipemia, but water should be available. Sedation is usually unnecessary in trained dogs, but a calm environment and gentle restraint are essential. Cats may require sedation or anesthesia, the choice of agent must not interfere with platelet function or erythrocyte integrity. Acepromazine is commonly used in dogs when mild sedation is needed, but current formulary guidance should be consulted for doses and species-specific precautions.

The collection site is clipped and aseptically prepared. For dogs, the jugular vein is preferred because it allows rapid collection of a large volume with minimal hemolysis. The cephalic or saphenous veins can be used but are slower and more prone to venous collapse. For cats, the jugular vein is also preferred. The donor is positioned in sternal recumbency with the head extended, or in lateral recumbency with the jugular vein raised. The operator should wear gloves and the site should be allowed to dry after antiseptic application before venipuncture.

Collection time should not exceed 10 to 15 minutes for a standard unit. Prolonged collection increases the risk of clot formation in the line and platelet activation. If flow is slow, the needle position should be adjusted instead of applying excessive negative pressure.

Collection Volumes and Donor Safety

The volume collected must be balanced against the donor's circulating blood volume. A commonly cited maximum is 10 to 15 mL per kg of body weight in dogs, and 10 to 12 mL per kg in cats, but these figures should be adjusted for the donor's hematocrit, cardiovascular status, and the frequency of donation. A healthy 25 kg dog can donate approximately 250 to 375 mL, while a 5 kg cat should not donate more than 50 to 60 mL. Donors with a hematocrit below 40% in dogs or 35% in cats should not be collected, and the hematocrit should be rechecked before each donation.

The interval between donations should allow full restoration of red cell mass. A minimum of 3 to 4 weeks is generally recommended for dogs, and 8 to 12 weeks for cats, but the evidence base for these intervals is limited and regional blood banking standards vary. The AVMA practice resources provide guidance on donor welfare and screening expectations, and the WOAH terrestrial animal health standards address disease surveillance relevant to donor populations in production animal settings.

After collection, the donor should receive intravenous or subcutaneous crystalloid fluids at two to three times the collected blood volume to support vascular volume. The donor should be monitored for pallor, tachycardia, weakness, and collapse during and after collection. A brief period of rest and observation is appropriate before the donor is discharged.

Storage Conditions and Shelf Life

Whole blood should be refrigerated at 1 to 6 degrees Celsius immediately after collection. The storage temperature must be maintained continuously, temperature excursions shorten the effective shelf life and accelerate the storage lesion. Blood should not be stored in a standard domestic refrigerator door, where temperature fluctuates, but in a dedicated blood bank refrigerator with continuous temperature monitoring and alarm.

The shelf life of whole blood depends on the anticoagulant-preservative solution and the storage temperature. The table below summarizes typical storage conditions and shelf life for canine whole blood.

These figures are derived from human blood banking standards and extrapolated to veterinary patients. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides species-specific guidance on transfusion practice, but the shelf life data for canine and feline whole blood are not as rigorously established as for human blood. In practice, many veterinary facilities use a conservative shelf life of 21 to 28 days for CPDA-1 whole blood, and some prefer to use units within 14 days to minimize the storage lesion.

Feline whole blood is more problematic. Feline erythrocytes have a shorter in vivo lifespan, and the storage lesion develops more rapidly. Many feline transfusion protocols recommend using fresh whole blood within 24 hours of collection, or stored whole blood within 7 days, because the biochemical changes during storage are less well tolerated. The AAHA/AAFP fluid therapy guidelines address fluid and blood product selection in small animal patients and note the importance of matching product age to the clinical need.

Monitoring During Storage

Stored whole blood should be inspected daily for color change, clot formation, hemolysis, and gas production. A normal unit has a uniform dark red appearance. A purple or black color suggests bacterial contamination. A clear supernatant with a red tinge indicates hemolysis. Clots in the bag or line indicate inadequate anticoagulant mixing or overcollection. Any unit with suspected contamination or hemolysis must be discarded.

The storage lesion is a progressive process. Erythrocyte 2,3-DPG declines, shifting the oxygen dissociation curve and reducing oxygen delivery to tissues. ATP depletion reduces red cell viability. Potassium leaks from erythrocytes into the plasma, and the plasma pH falls. Platelets lose function within hours of storage, and labile coagulation factors decline within 24 to 48 hours. These changes are clinically relevant: a unit stored for 21 days is not equivalent to a fresh unit, and the clinician must weigh the benefits of immediate availability against the reduced oxygen-carrying capacity and increased metabolic load of stored blood.

The RECOVER Initiative guidelines address transfusion as part of resuscitation in cardiac arrest and post-arrest care, where the choice between fresh and stored blood may affect outcomes. In hemorrhagic shock, fresh whole blood provides better hemostatic function than stored blood, but stored blood is preferable to no blood if fresh product is unavailable.

Documentation and Traceability

Every collected unit must be labeled with the donor identification, collection date and time, anticoagulant type, collection volume, and the initials of the collector. The label must also include the blood type if it has been determined, and the results of any infectious disease screening. A separate record should document the donor's hematocrit, body weight, physical examination findings, and any adverse events during collection.

Traceability is essential for investigating transfusion reactions and for managing donor health. The AVMA practice resources emphasize the importance of standardized protocols for donor screening and record keeping. In production animal practice, traceability may also be required for regulatory purposes, and the WOAH terrestrial animal health standards set expectations for disease surveillance that apply to donor animals in some jurisdictions.

The collection record should be retained for a period consistent with local regulations and practice policy. The record should link the donor, the unit, and the recipient so that any adverse outcome can be traced in both directions.

Recognized Complications and Early Detection

Whole blood transfusion carries risks that begin at collection and persist through storage. The most consequential failure modes are bacterial contamination, hemolysis, coagulopathy from citrate toxicity, and transfusion-transmissible infection.

Bacterial contamination typically originates from inadequate skin preparation, contaminated collection equipment, or breaks in aseptic technique during phlebotomy. Organizms that proliferate at refrigerated temperatures, particularly psychrophilic species such as Yersinia enterocolitica and certain Pseudomonas species, pose the greatest hazard because contaminated units may appear grossly normal. Early detection relies on visual inspection of the unit immediately before administration. Discolouration, unusual odour, excessive gas formation causing bag distension, or the presence of clots or particulate matter should prompt immediate discard. No point-of-care test reliably excludes contamination, so vigilance during collection and storage remains the primary defense.

Hemolysis during storage occurs when red cell membranes fail under osmotic or mechanical stress. Plasma free hemoglobin in the supernatant rises progressively with storage duration, and visible pink or red discolouration of the plasma layer indicates significant hemolysis. The swine model data from Burgert and colleagues demonstrated that intraosseous transfusion of whole blood does not significantly increase hemolysis compared with intravenous administration, with mean free hemoglobin levels of 7.2 micromol/L for the intraosseous route versus 10.23 micromol/L for the intravenous route. This finding supports intraosseous delivery as an acceptable alternative when vascular access is limited, though transfusion times may be up to twice as long.

Citrate toxicity arises when large volumes of citrated blood are administered rapidly, particularly in small patients or those with hepatic dysfunction. Citrate chelates ionised calcium, producing hypocalcemia that manifests as tremors, muscle fasciculations, hypotension, and electrocardiographic changes including prolonged QT interval. Early detection requires monitoring ionised calcium during rapid or massive transfusion, especially in cats and small dogs. The RECOVER Initiative guidelines emphasize that perfusion assessment and hemodynamic monitoring should accompany any transfusion delivered during resuscitation efforts.

Transfusion-transmissible infection remains a recognized risk despite donor screening. The simian foamy virus transmission studies by Williams and Khan demonstrated that whole blood transfusion can transmit cell-associated viruses, and that passive transfer of high-titre neutralising antibodies in donor plasma may block transmission. This work illustrates that donor immune status affects infectivity of cell-associated pathogens, a principle that extends to retroviruses and other intracellular organizms in veterinary patients. Screening programs should therefore consider both pathogen detection and, where relevant, donor serological status.

Common Errors and Corrective Actions

Less experienced clinicians frequently err in donor selection, collection technique, and storage handling. The 1992 survey of small-animal practices by Howard and colleagues found that 36 percent of surveyed practices did not screen donors for infectious diseases or evaluate hematologic variables before donation, and only 40 percent performed one or more of the tests generally recommended for donor screening. Blood typing of donors was performed in only 8 of 25 practices. These findings, though dated, illustrate persistent gaps between recommended and actual practice.

A common technical error is inadequate mixing of blood with anticoagulant during collection. Blood entering the collection bag must be mixed continuously, either by manual agitation or by placement on a rocking scale, to prevent clot formation. Discriminating between inadequate mixing and a defective anticoagulant bag requires inspection for clots in the bag and tubing after collection.

Overcollection beyond the calculated safe volume risks donor hypovolemia and anemia. Collection volumes must be calculated from body weight and hematocrit, with attention to the patient's cardiovascular reserve. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides species-specific guidance on donor selection and collection volumes, and current formulary references should be consulted for specific limits.

Storage errors include failure to maintain the cold chain, prolonged exposure to room temperature during transport or administration, and use of expired units. Refrigerator temperature should be verified with a calibrated thermometer and recorded daily. Units removed from storage for administration should be transfused within a defined period or discarded.

Troubleshooting Table

Limitations of Current Evidence

The evidence base for veterinary whole blood transfusion practices is uneven. Much of the foundational literature is decades old, and contemporary studies are limited by small sample sizes and single-center designs. The survey data from Howard and colleagues, while historically valuable, reflects practice patterns from 1992 and may not represent current standards. Similarly, the retrospective review by Jackson and Kruth of immune-mediated hemolytic anemia cases from 1969 through 1983 could not draw firm conclusions about therapeutic efficacy because of variation in treatment protocols. Clinicians should recognize that many transfusion recommendations derive from expert consensus instead of prospective randomised trials.

Expert opinion differs on several points, including the maximum safe storage duration for whole blood, the acceptability of refrigerated whole blood for platelet function, and the threshold at which stored blood should be supplemented with fresh components. The AAHA and AAFP fluid therapy guidelines acknowledge that transfusion decisions must balance hemostatic support, oxygen-carrying capacity, and volume status, and that these priorities shift with the clinical scenario.

Referral and Escalation

Referral to a specialist transfusion service or veterinary teaching hospital is warranted when the patient requires massive transfusion, when crossmatch-compatible blood cannot be obtained, when transfusion reactions occur despite appropriate precautions, or when the practice lacks the laboratory capacity for pre-transfusion testing. The AVMA practice resources provide guidance on professional standards for transfusion medicine, and practices should establish written protocols for donor screening, collection, storage, and adverse event reporting.

Regulatory reporting obligations vary by jurisdiction. Reportable events may include suspected transfusion-transmissible infections, particularly those with zoonotic potential or trade implications. The WOAH terrestrial animal health standards address disease surveillance and reporting obligations that may apply when transfusion-associated transmission of a notifiable pathogen is suspected. Clinicians should familiarise themselves with local requirements and report accordingly.

Frequently Asked Questions

How long can whole blood be stored if a dedicated blood bank refrigerator is unavailable?

Storage outside a monitored blood bank refrigerator is a compromise that shortens acceptable shelf life. A standard pharmacy or laboratory refrigerator maintained at 1 to 6 degrees Celsius, verified with a minimum-maximum thermometer, can be used for short-term holding, but temperature fluctuations accelerate red cell metabolism and reduce viability. If the unit has been out of controlled storage for more than 30 minutes, transfuse it promptly or discard it. For practices without any refrigeration capacity, collect only when the recipient is ready, and transfuse within 6 to 8 hours of collection. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides species-specific guidance on storage limits and handling of collected blood.

What is the minimum equipment needed to collect a safe unit of whole blood in an emergency?

A sterile collection system, anticoagulant, and a means of gentle mixing are non-negotiable. A commercial blood collection bag with integrated citrate phosphate dextrose adenine is ideal. When unavailable, a sterile syringe preloaded with anticoagulant attached to a butterfly catheter works for small volumes, provided the blood is transferred to a sterile container and mixed continuously. Weigh the collection container to confirm volume, since visual estimation is unreliable. Avoid glass containers and any tubing that has not been sterilely packaged. The AVMA practice resources describe minimum standards for collection equipment and infection control that apply even in emergency settings.

How does donor body weight change the maximum safe collection volume?

Collection volume is calculated from estimated circulating blood volume, approximately 90 mL per kilogram in dogs and 60 to 70 mL per kilogram in cats. A single donation should not exceed 10 to 15 percent of circulating volume in a healthy donor. For a 25 kg dog, that permits roughly 225 to 340 mL. For a 4 kg cat, the maximum is approximately 30 to 40 mL, which is why feline donation is often impractical without sedation and careful monitoring. Donors below 20 kg in dogs and 4 kg in cats are generally excluded. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides species-specific donor weight and volume recommendations.

What records must accompany a collected unit of whole blood?

Each unit requires a unique identification number linking donor, collection date and time, anticoagulant type and lot number, collection volume, and the phlebotomist's identity. Record the donor's identity, blood type, and screening test results. Document storage temperature checks and any handling events. Before transfusion, record the recipient's identity and the crossmatch result. Traceability from donor to recipient is a professional standard and supports adverse event investigation. The WOAH terrestrial animal health standards outline general principles for traceability in veterinary procedures that apply to transfusion medicine.

How should I explain transfusion risk to an owner who is reluctant to consent?

Focus on the immediate clinical indication, the expected benefit, and the specific risks of the transfusion itself. State that the blood has been typed and crossmatched where possible, and that the donor was screened for relevant infectious agents. Describe the monitoring that will occur during administration, including vital signs and observation for acute reactions. Acknowledge that transfusion carries a small risk of fever, allergic reaction, or hemolysis, and that these are managed promptly if they occur. The AAHA/AAFP fluid therapy guidelines include communication frameworks for discussing procedural risks with owners.

Can whole blood from one species be used in another species in an emergency?

Cross-species transfusion is not recommended. Naturally occurring antibodies against heterologous red cell antigens cause rapid hemolysis, often with severe or fatal consequences. The only exception is the occasional use of canine blood in cats when no feline blood is available and the recipient will die without transfusion, and this must be done with the understanding that acute hemolytic reactions are likely. Feline blood given to dogs is similarly hazardous. Blood typing and crossmatching do not eliminate these risks because the incompatibility is preformed and not detectable by standard crossmatch methods. The MSD Veterinary Manual states that only species-matched blood should be administered in clinical practice.

Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

• Toxicology in Emergency Practice: Common Poisons and Diagnostic Approach
• Veterinary Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation: Post-Cardiac Arrest Care
• Fluid Therapy Guidelines for Dogs and Cats: A Practical Update

References and Further Reading

• A study report of 174 units of placental umbilical cord whole blood transfusion in 62 patients as a rich source of fetal hemoglobin supply in different indications of blood transfusion.. 2001.
• Effects of intraosseous transfusion of whole blood on hemolysis and transfusion time in a swine model of hemorrhagic shock: a pilot study.. 2014.
• Role of neutralizing antibodies in controlling simian foamy virus transmission and infection.. 2010.
• Transfusion practices and costs in dogs.. 1992.
• Immune-mediated Hemolytic Anemia and Thrombocytopenia in the Dog: A retrospective study of 55 cases diagnosed from 1979 through 1983 at the Western College of Veterinary Medicine.. 1985.
• Detection of platelet-bound and serum platelet-bindable antibodies for diagnosis of idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura in dogs.. 1995.
• RECOVER Initiative Veterinary CPR Guidelines. Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care Society.
• AAHA/AAFP Fluid Therapy Guidelines for Dogs and Cats. AAHA.
• MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition. MSD Veterinary Manual.

Related Articles

• Veterinary Blood Transfusion: Administration and Monitoring
• Veterinary Blood Transfusion: Blood Types and Crossmatching
• Blood Transfusion in Dogs and Cats: Crossmatching and Compatibility
• Veterinary Blood Transfusion Reactions: Recognition and Management
• Complication Recognition in Canine Blood Transfusion Reactions

This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.