Veterinary CT Angiography: Indications and Interpretation

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-08-11

Key Takeaways

• Veterinary CT angiography (CTA) is a critical diagnostic tool for evaluating vascular abnormalities, including portosystemic shunts, pulmonary thromboembolism, and vascular invasion by neoplasia, by acquiring CT images during contrast medium injection to visualize arteries, veins, and portal structures.
• Optimal CTA requires precise timing of contrast enhancement, typically achieved through test bolus or bolus tracking techniques, to differentiate arterial (peak aortic enhancement, ~8-15 seconds post-injection in dogs) and portal phases (peak portal vein enhancement, ~25-40 seconds post-injection in dogs).
• Key interpretive errors include confusing arterial and portal phases, leading to misdiagnosis of conditions like portosystemic shunts, and common artifacts such as motion, beam hardening, and partial volume averaging must be recognized.
• CTA indications are specific and include thoracic (pulmonary thromboembolism, vascular ring anomalies), abdominal (portosystemic shunts, hepatic arteriovenous fistulae), and head/neck (vascular malformations, tumor encasement) pathologies, serving as a definitive vascular map for surgical or interventional planning.
• Patient preparation, including general anesthesia for breath-holding and fasting for abdominal studies, alongside careful contrast administration (peripheral venous catheter, multiphasic injection for prolonged enhancement) and saline flush, are essential for diagnostic quality.
• Radiation safety (ALARA principle) and awareness of contrast medium risks (vomiting, urticaria, rare anaphylaxis, potential nephrotoxicity in at-risk patients) are paramount considerations during CTA procedures.

Computed tomography angiography (CTA) is a vascular imaging technique that acquires CT images during the intravascular phase of a contrast medium injection, allowing detailed evaluation of arterial, venous, and portal structures. In veterinary practice, CTA has become a standard diagnostic method for conditions ranging from portosystemic shunts to pulmonary thromboembolism, and its utility continues to expand as helical and multidetector scanners become more widely available in referral settings. This article provides a structured approach to CTA in dogs and cats, covering the physiological principles that govern contrast distribution, patient preparation, acquisition protocols, and a systematic framework for interpreting vascular abnormalities. The content is directed at practicing veterinarians who request or perform these studies and who need to understand both the capabilities and the limitations of the technique.

The clinical questions that CTA answers are specific. Is a portosystemic shunt present, and if so, is it intrahepatic or extrahepatic? Is a pulmonary thrombus occluding a lobar artery, and what is its extent? Is a nasal mass invading the cribriform plate and encasing the internal carotid artery? Each question demands a different acquisition strategy, and the interpreting clinician must know which vascular phase was captured to avoid misreading an arterial study as a portal study or vice versa. This article equips the reader with the decision criteria for selecting and interpreting CTA studies across body systems.

At a Glance

Physiological Basis of Contrast Enhancement

The distribution of iodinated contrast medium after intravenous injection follows a predictable sequence governed by cardiac output, blood volume, and regional perfusion. After injection, contrast medium travels through the right heart into the pulmonary circulation, then to the left heart and systemic arteries. The time to peak aortic enhancement depends on injection rate, cardiac output, and the volume of the central blood pool. In normal dogs studied with a dynamic scan technique, the median time of appearance of contrast medium in the cranial abdominal aorta was 8.6 seconds, with peak enhancement at a median of 12.0 seconds. The hepatic artery appeared approximately 0.4 seconds after the aorta, and the portal vein appeared at a median of 14.6 seconds with peak enhancement at 33.0 seconds. These timing data, derived from a dual-phase CT angiographic technique in normal dogs, provide the foundation for protocol design in small animal patients.

The portal phase is delayed relative to the arterial phase because contrast medium must pass through the splanchnic capillary beds before reaching the portal vein. This temporal separation is the basis for dual-phase imaging, in which separate acquisitions capture the arterial and portal circulations. The original dual-phase technique described in dogs used a survey helical scan for orientation, a dynamic scan for timing, and then the dual-phase helical scan itself. The resulting images consistently defined the hepatic arteries, hepatic veins, cranial and caudal mesenteric veins, splenic vein, gastroduodenal vein, and portal vein branches.

Cardiac output is the dominant patient-specific variable affecting contrast timing. Patients with low cardiac output, such as those in shock or with significant cardiac disease, will have delayed contrast arrival and prolonged enhancement. Patients with high cardiac output, such as anxious or hyperthyroid animals, will have earlier and shorter enhancement peaks. Body condition also matters, as obese patients have a larger blood volume relative to lean body mass, which dilutes the contrast bolus and reduces peak enhancement.

Injection Technique and Contrast Delivery

The goal of contrast administration in CTA is to achieve uniform, prolonged vascular enhancement during the image acquisition window. A uniphasic injection, in which contrast is delivered at a constant rate, produces a sharp enhancement peak that may be missed if scan timing is imprecise. Pharmacokinetic modeling and experimental validation in a porcine model demonstrated that a multiphasic injection, in which the injection rate is varied over time, produces more uniform and prolonged enhancement than a uniphasic injection. In that study, multiphasic injections increased the duration of enhancement within 90 percent of the peak by 81 to 94 percent compared with uniphasic injections, while reducing peak enhancement by approximately 18 to 19 percent. The clinical implication is that multiphasic injection protocols are more forgiving of small errors in scan timing and are particularly useful when imaging larger volumes, such as the entire thorax or abdomen.

The injection rate must be matched to the venous catheter. A peripheral catheter in a cephalic or saphenous vein can typically accommodate rates of 2 to 4 mL per second in dogs, depending on catheter gauge and vein quality. Jugular catheters allow higher flow rates and reduce the risk of extravasation, but they require more technical skill to place. The total contrast volume is determined by the patient's body weight and the scan duration, with the goal of maintaining enhancement throughout the acquisition. Current formulary and label references must be consulted for specific contrast medium concentrations and volumes, as these vary by product and by institutional protocol.

Saline flush after the contrast bolus is standard practice. The flush pushes the trailing portion of the contrast column out of the peripheral veins and into the central circulation, improving bolus geometry and reducing perivenous artifacts. A flush volume of 10 to 20 mL in dogs and 5 to 10 mL in cats is typical, delivered at the same rate as the contrast injection.

Scan Timing Strategies

Two approaches are used to determine the optimal scan delay: the test bolus technique and bolus tracking. The test bolus technique involves injecting a small volume of contrast, typically 1 to 2 mL per kilogram, and acquiring a series of dynamic images at a single location to generate a time versus attenuation curve. The time to peak enhancement in the vessel of interest is then used to calculate the scan delay for the full diagnostic injection. This approach was integral to the original dual-phase technique described in normal dogs, where dynamic scanning was used to generate time versus attenuation graphs for the aorta and portal vein.

Bolus tracking, also called automated scan triggering, places a region of interest over a reference vessel, usually the descending aorta at the level of the diaphragm. The scanner monitors attenuation in that region during the injection and automatically initiates the diagnostic scan when a preset threshold is reached. Bolus tracking is faster than a test bolus and uses less contrast, but it requires careful placement of the region of interest and may fail in patients with very low cardiac output where the enhancement curve is shallow.

For dual-phase studies of the portal system, the arterial phase is typically acquired first, followed by the portal phase. The delay between phases must be long enough to allow contrast to traverse the splanchnic circulation but short enough that the portal phase is not contaminated by the systemic venous return. In the dual-phase technique described in dogs, the arterial and portal phases were timed from the dynamic scan data, and the resulting images provided excellent vascular opacification in all five normal dogs studied.

Patient Preparation and Anesthesia

General anesthesia is required for CTA in veterinary patients because the acquisition requires breath holding or at least minimal respiratory motion. Apnea can be induced with a brief period of manual ventilation or by using a ventilator to hold the lungs at a fixed inspiratory pressure. The anesthetist must be aware that the contrast injection itself can cause transient hypotension and that the scan duration may be 20 to 60 seconds depending on the protocol and the scanner.

Fasting is recommended before abdominal CTA to reduce gas and ingesta artifact in the gastrointestinal tract. The stomach and small intestine should be empty, and the colon may be evacuated if the study targets the caudal abdomen. For thoracic studies, fasting is less critical, but a light fast is still prudent to reduce the risk of regurgitation during anesthesia.

Patient positioning should be consistent between the survey and contrast-enhanced acquisitions. Sternal recumbency is standard for thoracic studies, while dorsal recumbency is often preferred for abdominal studies because it reduces respiratory motion of the dependent diaphragm. The limbs should be positioned away from the region of interest to avoid beam-hardening artifacts, and the patient should be secured firmly to prevent movement between phases.

Radiation Safety and Contrast Considerations

CTA delivers a higher radiation dose than a standard survey CT because multiple acquisitions are performed. The principles of as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA) apply, and the scan volume should be limited to the region of clinical interest. The American College of Veterinary Radiology provides practice resources on radiation safety and imaging standards that should be consulted when establishing institutional protocols.

Iodinated contrast medium carries a small risk of adverse reactions, including vomiting, urticaria, and, rarely, anaphylaxis. Patients with known renal disease or those receiving nephrotoxic drugs should be assessed for the risk of contrast-induced nephropathy, although the evidence for this complication in veterinary patients is limited. Pre-hydration and the use of the lowest effective contrast volume are reasonable precautions in at-risk patients.

Indications for CT Angiography by Body System

CT angiography is indicated when the clinical question concerns vascular anatomy, vascular patency, or the relationship between a mass and adjacent vessels. The technique is not a first-line screening test. It is selected when ultrasonography is inconclusive, when the region is inaccessible to ultrasound, or when a surgical or interventional plan requires a three-dimensional vascular map.

Thoracic Indications

Pulmonary thromboembolism is the most common thoracic indication. CT angiography is more sensitive than thoracic radiography and provides direct visualization of filling defects within the pulmonary arterial tree. The technique is also used to characterize aortic body tumors, evaluate persistent right aortic arch and other vascular ring anomalies, and define the extent of heart base masses before surgery. In cats with suspected aortic thromboembolism, CT angiography can confirm the diagnosis and demonstrate the extent of thrombus burden, although echocardiography remains the initial test in most hemodynamically unstable patients.

Abdominal Indications

Portosystemic shunts are the principal abdominal indication in dogs. CT angiography provides a complete map of the portal vasculature, identifies single versus multiple shunts, and defines the origin and insertion of the anomalous vessel. This information is essential for surgical planning. The technique is also used to evaluate hepatic arteriovenous fistulae, adrenal gland masses with vascular invasion, and abdominal neoplasia where vessel invasion changes the surgical approach. In cats, CT angiography is used for portosystemic shunt evaluation and for staging of biliary and pancreatic neoplasia.

Head and Neck Indications

Intracranial CT angiography is used to evaluate vascular malformations, meningiomas with vascular involvement, and the vascular supply of nasal masses before surgery or radiation therapy. The technique can demonstrate tumor encasement of the carotid artery or jugular vein, which alters resectability.

Diagnostic Sequence and Decision Points

The decision to perform CT angiography follows a structured sequence. The first step is confirmation that a vascular abnormality is suspected based on clinical signs, laboratory findings, or prior imaging. The second step is selection of the appropriate phase or phases. The third step is interpretation of the vascular study in the context of the surrounding soft tissues.

The phase selection depends on the vessel of interest. The arterial phase is selected for evaluation of the aorta, pulmonary arteries, and systemic arterial supply. The portal phase is selected for evaluation of the portal vein and its tributaries. A dual-phase acquisition, as described in the dual-phase CT angiography study of the normal canine portal and hepatic vasculature, images both the arterial and portal systems in a single study. This approach is particularly useful when the clinical question concerns both hepatic arterial and portal venous anatomy, such as in the evaluation of hepatic arteriovenous fistulae or complex portosystemic shunts.

The decision to use a multiphasic injection instead of a uniphasic injection is based on the duration of enhancement required. A multiphasic injection method for uniform prolonged vascular enhancement produces more uniform and prolonged enhancement than a uniphasic injection, which is advantageous when imaging multiple vascular territories or when the scan duration is long. The trade-off is a modest reduction in peak enhancement.

Decision Points That Change the Protocol

Patient size changes the contrast medium volume and injection rate. Small patients require lower volumes and slower injection rates to avoid extravasation and volume overload. Patients with cardiac disease have delayed transit times, which requires adjustment of the scan delay. Patients with suspected portal hypertension may have altered portal venous flow, which changes the timing of the portal phase.

The available CT hardware changes the protocol. Helical scanners with multiple detector rows acquire images faster than single-slice scanners, which shortens the required enhancement duration. The state of the art CT applications in small animals review notes that the increasing availability of helical CT has allowed novel techniques such as spiral CT angiography. Practices with slower scanners must use longer injection durations or multiphasic injection schemes to maintain vascular opacification throughout the acquisition.

Protocol Structure for Common Indications

The following protocol structure applies to most canine and feline CT angiography studies. The specific parameters are adjusted based on the patient and the equipment.

Interpretation Checklist

The interpretation of a CT angiography study follows a systematic sequence. The first step is verification of study quality. The vessels of interest must show adequate opacification, and motion artefact must be minimal. The second step is evaluation of the vessels in the arterial phase, followed by the portal phase. The third step is correlation of the vascular findings with the surrounding soft tissues.

Quality Assessment

The attenuation of the vessel of interest should be measured. A vessel is considered adequately opacified when its attenuation exceeds that of the surrounding soft tissues by a clear margin. The timing of the scan is verified by comparing the attenuation of the aorta and portal vein. In a correctly timed dual-phase study, the aorta is enhanced during the arterial phase and the portal vein is enhanced during the portal phase.

Vascular Evaluation

Each vessel is evaluated for the following features:

• Patency: Is the vessel opacified throughout its length? A filling defect indicates thrombus or tumor invasion.
• Course: Does the vessel follow a normal path? Anomalous vessels are identified by their origin and insertion.
• Diameter: Is the vessel dilated or attenuated? Portal vein diameter is compared with the aortic diameter at the same level.
• Wall integrity: Is the vessel wall smooth? Irregularity suggests invasion or inflammation.
• Collateral circulation: Are there collateral vessels that indicate chronic obstruction?

Soft Tissue Correlation

The vascular findings are interpreted in the context of the surrounding soft tissues. A mass that encases a vessel is different from a mass that displaces a vessel. A thrombus within a vessel that is adjacent to a neoplastic mass is more likely to represent tumor invasion than a primary thrombus. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides species-specific guidance on the clinical significance of vascular abnormalities in different body systems.

Documentation of Findings

The CT angiography report should describe the vascular anatomy, the abnormality, and the clinical significance of the finding. The report should include the following elements:

• The vessels that were evaluated and the phase in which they were opacified
• The location, size, and extent of any vascular abnormality
• The relationship of the abnormality to adjacent structures
• A statement of the clinical significance of the finding
• A recommendation for further imaging or intervention, where appropriate

Images should be reviewed in multiple planes. Dorsal plane reconstructions are particularly useful for evaluating the portal vasculature, and sagittal reconstructions are useful for evaluating the aorta and pulmonary arteries. Three-dimensional volume-rendered images are helpful for surgical planning but should not replace the review of the source images.

Species and Equipment Considerations

The correct protocol differs between species. Dogs are the most common patients for CT angiography, and the technique is well described for portosystemic shunt evaluation. Cats present additional challenges. Their smaller size requires lower contrast volumes, and their higher heart rates shorten the optimal scan window. Feline patients with suspected portosystemic shunts may require a slower injection rate to avoid reflux of contrast medium into the splenic vein.

The equipment available in the practice changes the protocol. Practices with a single-slice scanner must use longer injection durations and may need to acquire the arterial and portal phases as separate studies. Practices with a multi-slice scanner can acquire both phases in a single breath hold or with a single acquisition. The professional resources of the American College of Veterinary Radiology provide guidance on the minimum standards for CT angiography acquisition and interpretation.

Patient status changes the protocol. Patients with renal disease have a higher risk of contrast-induced nephropathy, and the benefit of the study must be weighed against this risk. Patients with cardiac disease have altered contrast transit times, and a test bolus or bolus tracking is recommended to time the scan correctly. Patients that are unable to tolerate a prolonged anesthetic may require a faster acquisition with a higher injection rate, accepting a reduction in enhancement uniformity.

Recognized Complications and Early Detection

Contrast extravasation remains the most common periprocedural complication. Perivascular leakage of iodinated contrast causes immediate pain, swelling, and tissue irritation. Early detection relies on observing the injection site during the power injection and checking for asymmetric limb swelling or resistance to flow. If extravasation is suspected, stop the injection immediately, remove the catheter, and apply warm compresses. Most mild cases resolve without intervention, but severe extravasation can cause compartment syndrome requiring surgical assessment.

Adverse contrast reactions occur less frequently in veterinary patients than in humans but remain a recognized risk. Signs range from mild urticaria and vomiting to severe hypotension, bronchospasm, and cardiovascular collapse. Detection depends on continuous anesthetic monitoring during and immediately after injection. A sudden drop in end-tidal carbon dioxide, unexplained tachycardia or bradycardia, or changes in pulse quality should prompt immediate assessment. Premedication protocols vary by institution, and current formularies should be consulted for species-specific recommendations.

Nephrotoxicity from iodinated contrast is a recognized concern, particularly in patients with pre-existing renal disease, dehydration, or concurrent nephrotoxic drug therapy. Baseline renal parameters should be reviewed before contrast administration. Post-scan monitoring of renal function is advisable in high-risk patients, though the true incidence of contrast-induced nephropathy in veterinary patients remains poorly defined.

Delayed complications include thromboembolism at the catheter site and post-anesthetic complications unrelated to contrast. Catheter-related thrombosis is uncommon with short-duration studies but can occur with prolonged catheterization or hypercoagulable patients. The ACVR professional resources provide guidance on contrast safety practices and complication reporting standards.

Common Interpretation Errors and Corrective Actions

Less experienced readers frequently mistake normal vascular structures for abnormalities. The most common error is interpreting the renal vein as a mass or the azygos vein as an aortic dissection. Corrective action involves tracing every vessel to its origin and termination before calling it abnormal. A vessel that follows an expected course and connects to known structures is almost always normal.

Artifactual filling defects are often misread as thromboemboli. Streaming of unopacified blood from a tributary can create a low-attenuation region within an opacified vessel. This occurs most commonly at the caudal vena cava near the renal veins and at the pulmonary arteries during early scanning. The discriminating feature is that streaming artifacts are typically non-occlusive, have ill-defined margins, and appear at predictable locations. True thromboemboli are usually occlusive or have well-defined, rounded margins. The dual-energy CT pulmonary embolism study in rabbits demonstrated that functional imaging can improve detection accuracy, though this technology is not yet widely available in veterinary practice.

Timing errors produce non-diagnostic studies. A scan performed too early shows poor venous opacification, while a scan performed too late shows washout and poor arterial definition. The dual-phase CT angiography technique described by Zwingenberger and Schwarz established that median aortic peak enhancement occurs at approximately 12 seconds and portal venous peak at approximately 33 seconds in normal dogs, but individual variation requires test bolus or bolus tracking methods.

Troubleshooting Table

Limitations of Current Evidence

The veterinary literature on CT angiography consists largely of small case series and technique descriptions instead of large prospective trials. The review of CT applications in small animals by Ohlerth and Scharf summarizes the state of the art but notes that evidence for many indications remains limited to case reports and expert opinion. Normal vascular enhancement times have been established for dogs, but comparable reference data for cats and exotic species are sparse. Breed-specific variations in vascular anatomy, particularly in brachycephalic dogs, are incompletely documented.

Expert opinion differs on several practical points. The optimal contrast dose for specific indications remains debated, with protocols varying substantially between institutions. Whether portal phase imaging should be performed routinely in all abdominal studies or only when portosystemic shunting is suspected is not settled. The role of CT angiography in staging neoplasia, particularly for pulmonary metastases, continues to evolve as faster scanners reduce motion artifact.

Referral, Consultation, and Reporting

Referral to a board-certified radiologist is appropriate when the study is technically challenging, when findings are equivocal, or when the clinical question requires advanced post-processing such as 3D reconstruction or perfusion analysis. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides guidance on when advanced imaging is indicated and how results should inform clinical decisions.

Laboratory involvement is warranted when contrast-induced nephropathy is a concern, when coagulopathy is suspected, or when vascular inflammation is part of the differential diagnosis. Nuclear scintigraphy or PET/CT may complement CT angiography in specific situations, as demonstrated by hybrid PET/CT studies correlating vascular anatomy with perfusion territories and by integrin-targeted PET tracers for vascular inflammation imaging, though these modalities remain largely research tools in veterinary medicine.

Regulatory reporting obligations vary by jurisdiction. Reportable events include unexpected patient death, severe adverse reactions to contrast media, and device failures involving injectors or catheters. The AVMA practice resources outline professional responsibilities regarding adverse event documentation. For food-producing animals, withholding periods and residue concerns must be addressed before contrast administration, and the WOAH terrestrial animal health standards should be consulted for international movement and trade implications.

Frequently Asked Questions

How do I decide between CT angiography and conventional catheter angiography for a suspected vascular anomaly?

CT angiography is generally preferred for initial diagnosis because it is minimally invasive, requires only a peripheral venous catheter, and provides excellent three-dimensional vascular detail. Conventional catheter angiography carries higher procedural risk and is now reserved for cases where interventional treatment is planned in the same session, or where CT findings are equivocal. For portosystemic shunts, dual-phase CT angiography reliably opacifies both the arterial and portal systems from a single injection, allowing surgical planning without selective catheterization. When catheter angiography is unavailable, CT angiography with careful timing remains the diagnostic standard for most vascular indications in veterinary patients.

What can I do when my clinic has only a single-slice or slow helical scanner?

A slow scanner can still produce diagnostic studies if the injection and scan are coordinated manually. Use a longer contrast injection at a lower rate to maintain vascular opacification across the acquisition window. A biphasic injection, with a higher initial rate followed by a slower maintenance phase, prolongs enhancement more effectively than a single constant rate. Perform a test bolus or timing scan at the level of interest to measure peak enhancement before the diagnostic acquisition. If multiphasic injection is not possible, accept that some venous structures may be suboptimally opacified and interpret with caution. Refer cases where timing precision is critical, such as suspected pulmonary embolism, to a facility with faster equipment.

How does CT angiography differ in avian and exotic patients?

Body size and heart rate dominate the technical considerations. Small patients require lower contrast volumes, often delivered by manual injection, and faster scan acquisition to capture the brief arterial phase. Respiratory motion is harder to control, so anesthetic protocols that provide brief apnoea are valuable. The normal vascular anatomy differs substantially from mammals, particularly the renal portal system in birds and reptiles, which can create confusing enhancement patterns. A survey scan before contrast injection helps identify normal species-specific structures. Published reference values for contrast timing in exotic species are scarce, so a test bolus is strongly recommended. Consultation with a radiologist experienced in exotic imaging is advisable before attempting these studies.

What should I document in the medical record after a CT angiogram?

Record the indication, the exact contrast agent and iodine concentration, total volume, injection rate, and whether a uniphasic or multiphasic injection was used. Document the timing method, whether test bolus or bolus tracking, and the actual scan delay. Note the scan phases acquired and any deviations from the planned protocol. Describe the vascular findings using standard anatomic terminology, including vessel patency, diameter, course, and any anomalous connections. Record the quality of opacification in each phase and any artefacts that limit interpretation. Include the radiation dose parameters if available. This documentation supports future comparison studies and provides medicolegal protection. The American College of Veterinary Radiology resources offer guidance on reporting standards.

How do I explain the need for CT angiography to an owner who is concerned about cost?

Frame the discussion around diagnostic accuracy and treatment planning. Explain that CT angiography provides a definitive map of the abnormal blood vessels, which directly guides whether surgery is feasible and what the surgical approach will be. A single well-planned CT angiogram often replaces multiple less informative tests, reducing total cost and anesthetic events. Contrast the cost against the risk of proceeding to surgery without complete vascular information, which can lead to intraoperative surprises, longer anesthesia, and worse outcomes. For suspected portosystemic shunts, the study also provides prognostic information by showing the degree of hepatic vascular development. The AVMA practice resources include client communication guidance that may help structure these conversations.

When is CT angiography not the right test, and what should I choose instead?

CT angiography is not indicated when the clinical question concerns dynamic flow, such as the direction of flow within a suspected shunt, because CT captures only a static moment. Doppler ultrasound remains superior for assessing flow direction and velocity. CT angiography is also inappropriate in patients with severe iodinated contrast allergy or uncompensated renal disease, where alternative imaging such as ultrasound or non-contrast MRI should be considered. For chronic, stable lameness where a vascular cause is unlikely, CT angiography adds cost and radiation without diagnostic benefit. When the suspected lesion is very small, such as a pulmonary arteriovenous fistula, the spatial resolution of the scanner may be insufficient, and referral to a facility with higher-end equipment is appropriate.

Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

• MRI Monitoring of Brain Tumor Response to Therapy in Dogs
• Ultrasound-Guided Drainage of Abscesses in Small Animals
• Radiographic Monitoring of Total Hip Replacement in Dogs

References and Further Reading

• Dual-phase CT angiography of the normal canine portal and hepatic vasculature.. 2004.
• Multiphasic injection method for uniform prolonged vascular enhancement at CT angiography: pharmacokinetic analysis and experimental porcine model.. 2000.
• Computed tomography in small animals--basic principles and state of the art applications.. 2007.
• Definition of vascular territories on myocardial perfusion images by integration with true coronary anatomy: a hybrid PET/CT analysis.. 2010.
• Evaluation of alphavbeta3 integrin-targeted positron emission tomography tracer 18F-galacto-RGD for imaging of vascular inflammation in atherosclerotic mice.. 2009.
• Pulmonary embolism detection with dual-energy CT: experimental study of dual-source CT in rabbits.. 2009.
• American College of Veterinary Radiology Resources. American College of Veterinary Radiology.
• MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition. MSD Veterinary Manual.
• American Veterinary Medical Association Practice Resources. American Veterinary Medical Association.

Related Articles

• Echocardiography in Dogs and Cats: Indications and Basic Interpretation
• Abdominal Radiography in Exotic Pets: Indications and Interpretation
• Advanced Imaging in Veterinary Medicine: CT and MRI Selection and Interpretation
• Musculoskeletal Radiography in Small Animals: Positioning and Interpretation
• Contrast Radiography in Veterinary Practice: Indications and Protocols

This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.