Suture Patterns in Veterinary Surgery: A Practical Guide

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-08-11

Key Takeaways

• Knot Security is Paramount: The terminal knot of continuous suture patterns is significantly more prone to failure than interrupted knots or the initial knot of a continuous pattern, necessitating additional throws (typically 1-2 more than the starting knot) and careful tensioning during placement, especially with monofilament sutures.
• Appositional vs. Inverting Patterns: Appositional patterns (e.g., Simple Interrupted, Simple Continuous) are generally preferred for skin, fascia, muscle, and most intestinal closures due to their ability to preserve luminal diameter and their optimal healing with comparable bursting strength to inverting patterns after 24 hours. Inverting patterns (e.g., Cushing, Lembert) are reserved for hollow viscera where a serosal seal is critical or for reinforcing a second layer, though excessive inversion can lead to luminal narrowing.
• Tissue Handling and Tension Control: Excessive tension during suture placement leads to tissue ischemia, blanching, and potential necrosis, increasing the risk of suture pull-through and delayed healing; sutures should approximate tissue without strangulation, and tension should be checked periodically. Inconsistent bite size and spacing result in uneven closure, necessitating careful planning and execution.
• Mucosal Eversion is Detrimental: In hollow viscus surgery, particularly in septic abdominal environments, mucosal eversion is a significant risk factor for leakage and dehiscence; approximating patterns that invert the mucosa are preferred to maintain luminal patency and promote optimal healing.
• Species and Tissue-Specific Adaptations: Suture pattern selection must account for species-specific tissue characteristics (e.g., thicker, more edema-prone equine jejunum) and the mechanical demands of the site (e.g., precise apposition in teat surgery to prevent fibrosis and maintain milkability). Urethral anastomosis carries a high risk of stricture regardless of technique, underscoring that pattern choice cannot fully overcome intrinsic tissue healing responses.
• Complication Recognition and Prevention: Dehiscence, stricture, and knot failure are primary complications. Early detection of incisional erythema, swelling, discharge, or poor wound edge apposition is crucial for timely intervention, and meticulous technique, including proper needle handling and knot tying, is essential for preventing these failures.

This article provides a structured comparison of suture patterns used in veterinary surgery, with emphasis on mechanical performance, tissue handling, and clinical decision-making. It is written for veterinary students and early-career surgeons who need a working framework for pattern selection across soft tissue, gastrointestinal, and urogenital procedures. The content addresses how pattern choice interacts with suture material, tissue type, and healing physiology, and it draws on published mechanical and experimental studies where available.

The reader is assumed to understand basic surgical instrumentation, knot tying, and wound healing principles. This guide does not cover suture material selection in depth, nor does it address stapling devices except where direct comparison with hand-sewn techniques is clinically relevant. Species differences are noted where they materially alter pattern selection.

At a Glance

Mechanical Principles of Suture Patterns

The mechanical behavior of a suture pattern depends on three interacting variables: the suture material, the knot configuration, and the geometry of tissue purchase. Knot security is the limiting factor for most patterns. A mechanical study of 11 suture materials in canine plasma found no significant difference in knot security or tensile failure load between simple interrupted square knots and the square knots beginning a simple continuous pattern. However, the knots tied at the end of a simple continuous pattern were significantly more likely to fail than either of those groups. The number of throws per knot had a significant effect on both knot security and tensile failure load, and surgeon experience influenced outcomes as well. These findings support the common clinical practice of adding extra throws to the terminal knot of a continuous pattern, particularly with monofilament materials that have low coefficients of friction.

Tissue holding capacity is distinct from knot security. A pattern may hold a knot perfectly yet pull through tissue if the purchase is inadequate or the tissue is friable. Inverting patterns such as the Cushing and Lembert distribute tension across a broader tissue footprint than simple appositional patterns, which can be advantageous in edematous or inflamed bowel. Conversely, excessive inversion narrows the lumen and may create functional obstruction.

Appositional Patterns

Simple Interrupted

The simple interrupted pattern remains the reference standard for most tissues because each suture is independent. Failure of one suture does not unravel the entire closure. This pattern is preferred for infected or contaminated wounds where removal of individual sutures may be needed, and for skin closures where tension varies along the incision line. The principal disadvantages are construction time and the number of knots required. In an experimental esophagotomy study in dogs, single-layer simple interrupted closure had the highest bursting wall tension at 28 days compared with single-layer continuous and double-layer closures, although the double-layer closure was stronger at earlier time points.

Simple Continuous

The simple continuous pattern is faster to place and distributes tension evenly along the entire incision. It is widely used for linea alba closure, subcuticular apposition, and intestinal anastomoses. The main risks are suture loosening if the terminal knot fails and the potential for purse-stringing if tension is applied unevenly during placement. In the equine jejunum, single-layer continuous Cushing anastomoses were faster to construct than single-layer Lembert or double-layer continuous closures, with no difference in bursting pressure between the three patterns. Continuous patterns are also appropriate for intestinal closure in small animals, where approximating patterns preserve luminal diameter and heal optimally with bursting strength equal to inverting patterns after 24 hours.

Inverting Patterns

Cushing and Lembert

The Cushing pattern runs parallel to the incision line and inverts tissue as it is tightened. The Lembert pattern places bites perpendicular to the incision, also producing inversion. Both are used for hollow viscera where a watertight seal and minimal luminal contamination are priorities. In the equine study, single-layer Cushing anastomoses were faster to construct than single-layer Lembert closures, and both were faster than double-layer closures. Bursting pressures did not differ between any of the anastomotic patterns and control jejunum, but all anastomoses reduced lumen size to some degree.

In small animal intestinal surgery, inverting patterns were historically favoured for their perceived leak resistance. Experimental work in live dogs demonstrated that mucosal eversion is dangerous, particularly in the septic abdomen, and approximating patterns are now preferred for most enterotomies and enterectomies. Inverting patterns retain a role where tissue viability is questionable or where a second layer is desired for reinforcement.

Species and Tissue Considerations

Pattern selection must be adapted to the mechanical demands of the tissue and the species. Equine jejunum is thicker and more edema-prone than canine or feline intestine, and double-layer closures remain popular in equine practice despite the absence of demonstrated bursting pressure advantages for single-layer techniques. The choice between single and double layer in horses is therefore driven by surgeon preference and perceived security instead of by mechanical evidence.

Urethral anastomosis in dogs presents a different challenge. Experimental transection of the intrapelvic urethra produced some degree of stricture regardless of the anastomotic technique used. Suturing over an indwelling catheter subjectively produced the least stricture, but all techniques resulted in measurable lumen reduction. This underscores the principle that pattern selection cannot fully compensate for the intrinsic healing response of a given tissue.

Teat surgery in cattle demands precise apposition because even small amounts of fibrosis impair milking mechanics. Basic surgical principles, including delicate tissue handling and appropriate suture patterns, are essential to successful outcomes. The same principle applies across species: the pattern must hold tissue in apposition without strangulating it, and the surgeon must match suture size and purchase to the tissue's holding capacity.

Selecting a Pattern: Decision Framework

The primary decision is whether the closure must be appositional or inverting. Appositional patterns are appropriate for skin, subcutis, fascia, muscle, and most intestinal closures. Inverting patterns are reserved for hollow viscera where a serosal seal is desired or where a second reinforcing layer is planned. Within each category, the choice between interrupted and continuous depends on the consequences of pattern failure. If failure of one suture would be catastrophic, as in a high-tension abdominal closure, interrupted patterns or a continuous pattern with a securely reinforced terminal knot are reasonable options. If speed matters and the tissue holds sutures well, continuous patterns are preferred.

Practical Execution of Common Patterns

Needle Driver and Instrument Handling

The needle driver should grasp the needle at the junction of the middle and distal thirds, never at the swage. The needle enters tissue perpendicular to the incision line and follows its curvature through the tissue, not a straight push. The wrist rotates to drive the needle through both wound edges in a single motion where tissue density permits. For dense tissues such as skin and fascia, a second bite may be required, but the needle should not be regrasped on the cutting edge.

The surgeon's nondominant hand uses tissue forceps to stabilize the wound edge and provide counterpressure. The forceps should grasp only the cut edge or the dermal-subcutaneous junction, never the full thickness of the tissue that will remain in the wound. Crushing the tissue edge with forceps produces necrosis that delays healing and weakens the repair.

Knot Tying at the Start and End of Continuous Patterns

The knot at the beginning of a simple continuous pattern is tied as a square knot with the same number of throws as a simple interrupted knot in the same material. Mechanical testing in canine plasma has shown no significant difference in knot security or tensile failure load between simple interrupted square knots and the square knots that begin a simple continuous pattern Marturello et al., knot security and tensile strength of suture materials. The knot at the end of a continuous pattern, however, is significantly more likely to fail than either the interrupted knot or the starting knot of a continuous line Marturello et al., knot security and tensile strength of suture materials. The final knot must therefore receive additional throws, typically one or two more than the starting knot, and the suture should be pulled taut before each throw to seat the knot firmly against the tissue.

The tail ends at the start of a continuous pattern should be left long enough to allow the surgeon to identify and retrieve them if the knot fails. A common practice is to leave the starting tail at 2 to 3 mm and the ending tail at 3 to 5 mm, depending on suture calibre and material. Monofilament sutures require more throws than braided sutures of equivalent calibre because of their lower coefficient of friction.

Tension and Tissue Approximation

The single most common technical error in continuous patterns is overtightening. Each throw of a continuous pattern should approximate the wound edges without blanching the tissue. Blanching indicates ischemia and predicts suture pull-through, tissue necrosis, and delayed healing. The surgeon should check the tension after every two or three throws by lifting the suture line gently with forceps. The line should have slight give, and the wound edges should remain in contact without gaping.

For hollow viscera, the tension must preserve luminal diameter. In equine jejunal anastomoses, all tested patterns, including single-layer Cushing, single-layer Lembert, and double-layer simple continuous with Cushing, reduced lumen size compared with control segments, and the reduction varied by pattern Sherlock et al., ex vivo comparison of hand sewn end-to-end anastomoses in equine jejunum. The surgeon should select the smallest suture calibre that will hold the tissue and tie each throw to apposition, not compression.

Pattern Selection by Tissue Type

Hollow Viscus Closure

Intestinal wounds require precise closure because mucosal eversion is dangerous, particularly in the septic abdomen Ellison, Case, and Regier, intestinal surgery in small animals. Approximating patterns preserve luminal diameter and heal optimally, with bursting strength equal to inverting patterns after 24 hours Ellison, Case, and Regier, intestinal surgery in small animals. The choice between simple interrupted and simple continuous for intestinal closure is largely surgeon preference, as both are established alternatives for manual wound closure Ellison, Case, and Regier, intestinal surgery in small animals.

Leak testing after intestinal closure is standard of care. The surgeon occludes the lumen proximal and distal to the repair, injects sterile saline into the segment, and observes for leakage at the suture line. Any leak requires additional sutures placed at the leak site, not between existing sutures. Omental wrapping of the repair provides a vascularised seal and is recommended regardless of closure technique Ellison, Case, and Regier, intestinal surgery in small animals.

For esophageal closure, the evidence favours appositional techniques. In a canine model, single-layer simple interrupted closure had the highest bursting wall tension at 28 days, while single-layer simple continuous closure had the lowest bursting wall tension at every time point Oakes et al., esophagotomy closure in the dog. Double-layer closure had higher bursting wall tension than single-layer closures at 0 hours and 4 days, and healing was histologically superior with the double-layer technique Oakes et al., esophagotomy closure in the dog. The esophagus lacks a serosal layer, so the surgeon must take slightly deeper bites to include the submucosa, which is the holding layer.

Urethral and Teat Repair

Urethral anastomosis carries a high risk of stricture. In a canine model, complete urethral transection resulted in some degree of stricture regardless of the anastomotic technique used Layton et al., intrapelvic urethral anastomosis. Suturing the urethra over an indwelling catheter subjectively produced the least stricture, and severe stricture correlated with histopathologic evidence of chronic inflammatory urinary tract disease Layton et al., intrapelvic urethral anastomosis. The surgeon should place sutures through the full thickness of the urethral wall, excluding the mucosa where possible, and tie them with minimal tension. An indwelling catheter at the time of closure maintains luminal alignment and reduces the risk of catching the opposite wall.

Teat surgery demands precision because even small amounts of fibrosis reduce the production life of the animal Couture and Mulon, procedures and surgeries of the teat. The teat cistern and the streak canal must remain patent, and the suture pattern must not invert or evert the mucosal edges. Simple interrupted sutures with fine monofilament material, placed through the full thickness of the teat wall but excluding the mucosa, provide the most reliable apposition. The surgeon should débride devitalised tissue gently, achieve meticulous hemostasis, and avoid any tension that would compromise the delicate epithelial lining Couture and Mulon, procedures and surgeries of the teat.

Monitoring and Postoperative Assessment

The suture line should be assessed at each postoperative examination for the following parameters:

The surgeon should document the pattern used, suture material and calibre, number of throws at each knot, and any intraoperative complications such as tissue tearing or needle breakage. This documentation supports postoperative decision-making if the repair fails and provides a record for outcome assessment.

Species and Production System Modifications

The correct pattern choice changes with species, patient status, and available equipment. In equine intestinal surgery, double-layer techniques remain more popular than the single-layer techniques preferred in small animals, although single-layer patterns are faster to construct and show no difference in bursting pressure in ex vivo testing Sherlock et al., ex vivo comparison of hand sewn end-to-end anastomoses in equine jejunum. The surgeon should weigh the longer construction time of the double-layer closure against the familiarity and perceived security of the technique.

In food animals, the surgeon must consider the cost of suture material, the need for rapid closure to minimize anesthesia time, and the production consequences of a failed repair. Teat surgery in dairy cattle requires patterns that preserve the delicate lining of the teat cistern, and the surgeon should plan the approach with imaging where available Couture and Mulon, procedures and surgeries of the teat. Postoperative management, including the use of teat inserts and the timing of milking, is as important as the suture pattern itself.

Patient status changes the risk calculus. Hypoalbuminaemia and intra-abdominal sepsis increase the risk of intestinal dehiscence, and the surgeon should consider stapled anastomosis when sepsis is present and patient size permits Ellison, Case, and Regier, intestinal surgery in small animals. In a compromised patient, the surgeon should choose the pattern that can be placed most reliably and quickly, even if a more elaborate pattern would provide marginally better mechanical performance in a healthy patient.

Automated stapling devices produce dehiscence rates similar to hand-sewn anastomoses in uncomplicated cases, and they may be preferred in the septic abdomen Ellison, Case, and Regier, intestinal surgery in small animals. The surgeon who does not have access to stapling equipment should use a simple interrupted or simple continuous hand-sewn closure with meticulous technique and leak testing.

Complications and Failure Modes

Every suture pattern can fail, and the failure is often attributable to pattern selection, execution, or material instead of to the tissue itself. Recognizing the early signs of each failure mode allows intervention before clinical deterioration.

Dehiscence is the most consequential complication. In hollow viscus surgery, mucosal eversion is a recognized risk factor for leakage, particularly in the presence of intra-abdominal sepsis, and approximating patterns that preserve luminal diameter heal optimally with bursting strength equal to inverting patterns after 24 hours in experimental models Ellison, Case, and Regier on intestinal surgery in small animals. Early detection relies on serial physical examination, monitoring for fever, tachycardia, or progressive abdominal pain, and, where available, abdominal ultrasonography or peritoneal fluid analysis. Leak testing at the time of closure remains the standard intraoperative check.

Stricture develops insidiously. In urethral anastomosis, some degree of stricture occurs regardless of technique, and severe narrowing is associated with chronic inflammatory urinary tract disease Layton et al on intrapelvic urethral anastomosis techniques. Early detection requires monitoring of urinary stream, post-void residual volume, and imaging when clinical signs suggest obstruction. In teat repair, fibrosis, even when small, shortens the productive life of the animal, so postoperative assessment should include careful palpation and, where indicated, ultrasonography Couture and Mulon on teat procedures and surgeries.

Knot failure at the end of a continuous pattern is a specific and reproducible hazard. Mechanical testing shows that knots tied at the end of a simple continuous pattern are significantly more likely to fail than simple interrupted knots or the knots that begin a continuous pattern, and the number of throws per knot significantly affects both knot security and tensile failure load Marturello et al on knot security and tensile strength of suture materials. The discriminating check is to inspect the final knot before cutting the suture ends and to confirm that it is square, snug, and has an adequate number of throws for the material.

Common Errors and Corrective Action

Less experienced surgeons repeat a small set of predictable errors. Each has a specific correction.

Excessive tension on the suture line causes tissue ischemia and tearing. The correction is to place sutures so that they appose without strangulating, and to use tension-relieving patterns where the wound is under genuine load. If the tissue blanches around the suture, the tension is too high.

Inconsistent bite size and spacing produces an uneven line that leaks or inverts unevenly. The correction is to plan bites before placing them, to keep bite size and spacing consistent along the entire line, and to check the completed line for gaps before tying the final knot.

Mucosal eversion in hollow viscus closure is a functional failure, also a cosmetic one. The correction is to use an approximating pattern with bites placed to invert the mucosa, and to verify the luminal surface by palpation or visual inspection where access permits.

Incorrect needle handling causes tissue trauma and suture damage. The correction is to drive the needle along its curve, to grasp it at the junction of the middle and distal thirds, and to avoid crushing the needle tip or swage.

Failure to secure the start knot of a continuous pattern leads to loosening of the entire line. The correction is to tie the start knot with the same care as any other knot, and to take the first bite before tying the start knot so that the knot seats against tissue instead of in air.

Troubleshooting Table

Limitations of the Evidence

The evidence base for suture pattern selection is uneven. Much of it derives from mechanical studies on harvested tissue or from experimental surgery in healthy animals, and the translation to clinical patients with peritonitis, hypoproteinaemia, or compromised perfusion is uncertain. In equine jejunum, ex vivo studies show that single-layer patterns are faster to construct than double-layer patterns with no difference in bursting pressure, but lumen size reduction occurs with all anastomoses Sherlock et al on hand-sewn end-to-end anastomoses in equine jejunum. Whether these ex vivo findings predict clinical outcomes in horses remains debated, and many equine surgeons continue to prefer double-layer closure.

Expert opinion still differs on several points. The choice between simple interrupted and simple continuous for intestinal closure is one example. Mechanical data show comparable knot security for the start knot of a continuous pattern and for simple interrupted knots, but the end knot of a continuous pattern is weaker Marturello et al on knot security and tensile strength of suture materials. Some surgeons therefore prefer interrupted patterns where the end of the line is a critical point, while others accept the continuous pattern for its speed and even tension distribution. In esophageal closure, a double-layer appositional technique has shown superior histological healing and higher early bursting wall tension than single-layer closures, yet single-layer continuous closure is fastest to perform Oakes et al on esophagotomy closure in the dog. The surgeon must weigh operative time against the mechanical and histological advantages of a more complex closure.

Referral and Escalation

Referral is indicated when the required procedure exceeds the surgeon's training, when the tissue is compromised beyond the safe application of standard patterns, or when the patient's systemic status makes a prolonged procedure hazardous. Specific circumstances that warrant escalation include recurrent dehiscence, anastomotic leakage with sepsis, stricture that causes functional obstruction, and teat injuries where fibrosis would end the productive life of the animal Couture and Mulon on teat procedures and surgeries.

Laboratory involvement is appropriate for culture and susceptibility testing in contaminated or infected surgical sites, and for histopathology where wound failure suggests an underlying disease process. Regulatory reporting obligations vary by jurisdiction and by the nature of the case. The World Organization for Animal Health publishes international standards for animal health and welfare that may apply to notifiable diseases or to surgical procedures performed in a food-production context WOAH terrestrial animal health standards. Practitioners should also be aware of the professional standards expected of veterinary graduates, which include the ability to recognize the limits of their own competence and to refer appropriately RCVS Day One Competences.

Frequently Asked Questions

How do I choose a pattern when I have limited time or resources in the field?

When time or resources are constrained, prioritize knot security and tissue apposition over pattern elegance. A simple continuous pattern is the fastest to place and uses less suture material than interrupted patterns, making it economical for long closures. However, the knot at the end of a continuous pattern is more prone to failure than knots at the start or in simple interrupted sutures, so add an extra throw and consider a second anchor bite if tension is high. Mechanical testing of common suture materials shows that the number of throws significantly affects both knot security and tensile failure load, so do not reduce throws to save time. For contaminated wounds, interrupted patterns remain safer because a single failed knot does not unravel the entire closure.

What should I do if the ideal suture material is unavailable?

Select the closest available substitute based on the tissue's healing rate and the required holding time. For rapidly healing tissues such as the bladder or stomach, a shorter-lasting absorbable material is acceptable. For slow-healing or high-tension tissues such as the esophagus or urethra, use a longer-lasting monofilament absorbable or nonabsorbable material. Monofilament sutures are preferred in contaminated or infected sites because they harbor fewer bacteria than braided materials. If only braided material is available, use an interrupted pattern to limit bacterial wicking along the suture tract. Always document the substitute material and the reason for its selection in the medical record, and note that the expected holding time may differ from the ideal choice.

How does pattern selection differ between small animals and large animals?

The same mechanical principles apply across species, but practical constraints differ. In equine jejunal anastomosis, double-layer closures have been traditional, yet ex vivo studies show that single-layer Cushing and Lembert patterns achieve bursting pressures comparable to double-layer closures while reducing construction time. This matters in large animal surgery where anesthesia time and cost are significant. In cattle teat repair, precision is paramount because even small amounts of fibrosis reduce milkability and shorten the productive life of the animal. The surgeon must select a pattern that achieves perfect apposition with minimal tissue trauma. In small animals, the smaller tissue size allows finer suture material and more delicate patterns, but the decision framework remains the same: match the pattern to the tissue's healing characteriztics and the mechanical demands of the site.

What documentation should I include in the medical record for a sutured closure?

Record the suture material, size, needle type, and pattern used, including the number of throws for each knot. Note the tissue layers closed, the presence of any tension at the closure site, and whether a leak test was performed for hollow viscus closures. Document any deviations from the planned pattern, such as additional tension-relieving sutures or a change in material, and the reason for the change. Include an assessment of tissue viability and contamination. For production animals, record the identification of the animal and any withdrawal period considerations for the drugs used, following current label and regulatory references. This documentation supports continuity of care and provides a defensible record if complications arise. The RCVS Day One Competences include maintaining accurate clinical records as a core professional skill.

How do I explain a suture complication to a client or referring veterinarian?

Describe the complication factually without assigning blame. State what was found, for example partial or complete dehiscence, and what steps are planned. If a knot failed, explain that knot failure is a recognized risk in continuous patterns and that the number of throws influences security, as demonstrated in mechanical studies of suture materials. If stricture is the concern, reference the known risk of luminal narrowing after any circumferential closure, as seen in urethral anastomosis studies where some degree of stricture occurred regardless of technique. Outline the diagnostic and therapeutic plan, including imaging, revision surgery, or medical management. Provide a realistic prognosis based on the tissue and the complication. For referral, summarize the original procedure, the complication timeline, and any interventions already performed. This structured handover supports the receiving clinician and maintains client trust.

When should I refer a case instead of attempt closure with a pattern I know?

Refer when the tissue is outside your experience or when the consequences of failure are severe and the salvage options are limited. Examples include complex esophageal surgery, intrapelvic urethral anastomosis, and teat injuries in high-value production animals. Esophageal healing is notoriously difficult, and historical studies show that closure technique affects both bursting wall tension and histologic healing. Urethral anastomosis carries a high risk of stricture even under ideal conditions, and a poor initial repair may convert a manageable problem into a permanent disability. If you cannot achieve precise apposition, adequate exposure, or appropriate postoperative monitoring, referral is the safer choice. Communicate early, provide complete records, and stabilize the patient before transfer. The AVMA practice resources offer guidance on professional obligations regarding referral and continuity of care.

Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

• Veterinary Case Presentation: Structure and Delivery
• Veterinary Communication in the Workplace: Team Dynamics
• Monitoring Plans for Hospitalized Veterinary Patients

References and Further Reading

• Knot security and tensile strength of suture materials.. 2014.
• Intestinal surgery in small animals: historical foundations, current thinking, and future horizons.. 2019.
• Esophagotomy closure in the dog. A comparison of a double-layer appositional and two single-layer appositional techniques.. 1993.
• Ex vivo comparison of three hand sewn end-to-end anastomoses in normal equine jejunum.. 2011.
• Procedures and surgeries of the teat.. 2005.
• Intrapelvic urethral anastomosis. A comparison of three techniques.. 1987.
• RCVS Day One Competences. RCVS.
• MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition. MSD Veterinary Manual.
• American Veterinary Medical Association Practice Resources. American Veterinary Medical Association.

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This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.