Cerebrospinal Fluid Analysis in Veterinary Neurology: Collection and Interpretation

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-08-11

Key Takeaways

• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis is indicated for suspected inflammatory, infectious, or neoplastic CNS disease, serving to differentiate these from non-inflammatory conditions and characterize inflammatory responses. Primary indications include meningoencephalitis of unknown origin, infectious meningitis, CNS neoplasia, and selected metabolic or degenerative conditions.
• Contraindications for CSF collection are critical to patient safety and include elevated intracranial pressure with risk of herniation, bleeding diatheses, and local infection at the puncture site. Advanced imaging should precede CSF collection in patients with suspected space-occupying lesions to assess for mass effect and herniation risk.
• Normal CSF in dogs and cats typically contains fewer than 5 nucleated cells per microliter, predominantly small mononuclear cells (lymphocytes and monocytes), with total protein generally below 25-30 mg/dL in cisternal samples. Lumbar samples may exhibit slightly higher protein concentrations due to the rostrocaudal gradient.
• Cytologic patterns are diagnostically informative: a neutrophilic pleocytosis suggests bacterial meningitis, while a mononuclear pleocytosis is characteristic of viral disease, granulomatous inflammation, or certain neoplasms. Mixed pleocytosis can indicate fungal or protozoal infections.
• Sample handling is paramount for accurate interpretation; CSF should be processed within 30-60 minutes of collection to prevent cellular degeneration, which can lead to falsely low cell counts and altered differentials. Refrigeration slows but does not halt degeneration, and samples should be analyzed within 4-6 hours if immediate processing is impossible.
• A normal CSF analysis does not exclude CNS disease, and interpretation must always be integrated with signalment, history, neurologic examination, and imaging findings. Cytology can be insensitive for early or focal lesions and some neoplasms.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis is a core diagnostic procedure in veterinary neurology, providing direct biochemical and cytologic information about the central nervous system (CNS) when clinical examination and localization suggest intrathecal disease. This article covers the indications, collection techniques, and interpretation of CSF analysis across species, with emphasis on dogs and cats. It serves the practising veterinarian who needs a practical framework for when to tap, how to tap safely, and how to read the results in context. The content assumes familiarity with neurologic examination and neurolocalisation but does not require specialist training in advanced imaging.

The value of CSF analysis lies in its ability to distinguish inflammatory from non-inflammatory CNS disease, to characterize the nature of an inflammatory response, and in some cases to identify neoplastic infiltration. It is not a screening test for all neurologic presentations. The decision to collect CSF should follow a clear clinical question, and the interpretation must always be integrated with signalment, history, neurologic examination, and imaging findings. This article does not cover advanced neuroimaging, but the relationship between imaging and CSF collection is addressed where it affects procedural safety and diagnostic yield.

At a Glance

Physiology of Cerebrospinal Fluid

CSF is produced primarily by the choroid plexuses of the lateral, third, and fourth ventricles, with a smaller contribution from the ependyma and cerebral capillaries. The fluid circulates through the ventricular system, exits via the lateral apertures and median aperture of the fourth ventricle, and flows over the cerebral convexities and spinal cord before being absorbed through the arachnoid villi into the venous sinuses. The blood-brain barrier and blood-CSF barrier regulate the composition of CSF, keeping protein concentrations low and cell counts minimal in health.

The normal CSF is a clear, colorless ultrafiltrate with a specific gravity close to that of water. Protein content is substantially lower than plasma, and the cellular population consists of a small number of resident mononuclear cells. Any breach of the blood-brain barrier, inflammation of the meninges or neuroparenchyma, or neoplastic infiltration can alter the cell count, protein concentration, or both. Understanding the normal physiology allows the clinician to predict which disease processes will produce characteriztic CSF changes and which will not.

The rostrocaudal gradient of CSF protein is a clinically relevant feature. Protein concentration tends to increase from the ventricular system to the lumbar subarachnoid space, so lumbar samples normally have slightly higher protein than cisternal samples. This gradient must be considered when interpreting protein values, particularly when comparing results from different collection sites.

Indications for Cerebrospinal Fluid Collection

CSF analysis is indicated when there is clinical suspicion of inflammatory, infectious, or neoplastic disease affecting the CNS. Typical presentations include acute or progressive multifocal neurologic signs, fever of unknown origin with neurologic abnormalities, cervical or thoracolumbar spinal pain without a clear orthopedic cause, and seizures that are not consistent with idiopathic epilepsy. The International Veterinary Epilepsy Task Force consensus proposal on diagnostic approach to epilepsy in dogs recommends CSF analysis as part of the tiered diagnostic workup when structural brain disease is suspected, particularly when magnetic resonance imaging reveals abnormalities that could represent inflammatory or neoplastic lesions.

In cattle, CSF analysis is routinely used to differentiate bacterial meningitis from other causes of CNS disease. A retrospective study of 102 cattle with confirmed CNS disorders found that bacterial infections, particularly listeriosis and neonatal meningitis, were the most common cause of CNS disease, and that CSF findings varied by aetiology. Neonatal meningitis was characterized by a marked, predominantly neutrophilic pleocytosis, while mild mononuclear pleocytosis was typical of listeriosis but also occurred with abscesses, viral infections, salt poisoning, and trauma. These findings illustrate the need to interpret CSF results in the context of signalment, history, and clinical signs instead of relying on cytology alone.

CSF analysis is also indicated when CNS neoplasia is suspected, although the sensitivity of cytology is variable. In a retrospective evaluation of 23 cats with spinal lymphosarcoma, neoplastic lymphocytes were identified on CSF analysis in 6 of 17 cats evaluated, demonstrating that a negative CSF result does not exclude neoplasia. The diagnostic yield is higher for diffuse or meningeal neoplasms than for well-circumscribed intraparenchymal masses.

Contraindications and Risk Assessment

The most important contraindication to CSF collection is elevated intracranial pressure with risk of transtentorial or foramen magnum herniation. Patients with suspected space-occupying intracranial lesions, particularly those in the caudal fossa, are at increased risk. Clinical signs that raise concern include altered mentation, anisocoria, absent pupillary light reflexes, abnormal respiratory patterns, and decerebrate or decerebellate posturing. In these patients, imaging should be performed before CSF collection, and the decision to tap should be reconsidered if imaging reveals significant mass effect, midline shift, or herniation.

Other contraindications include bleeding diatheses, thrombocytopenia, and anticoagulant therapy, because hemorrhage into the subarachnoid space can confound interpretation and worsen neurologic status. Uncontrolled seizures are a relative contraindication because the procedure may exacerbate seizure activity. Local infection at the puncture site is an absolute contraindication.

The American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology guidelines emphasize the importance of standardized laboratory procedures and quality assurance in the analysis of body fluids, including CSF. Collection technique, sample handling, and laboratory processing all affect the reliability of results, and the clinician should be familiar with the capabilities and limitations of the laboratory to which samples are submitted.

Equipment and Sample Handling

Cerebrospinal fluid collection requires minimal specialized equipment, but the quality of the sample depends on strict attention to handling. A 20 to 22 gauge, 1.5 to 3.5 inch spinal needle with a stylet is appropriate for most dogs and cats. Smaller gauge needles (22 to 25 gauge) are used for kittens, puppies, and small ruminants. Larger species such as cattle and horses may require 18 to 20 gauge needles of 3.5 to 6 inches in length. The stylet must remain in place during tissue penetration to prevent introduction of epidermal cells or bone fragments into the needle lumen.

Collection tubes should be sterile, additive-free, and preferably plastic instead of glass. Glass tubes allow leukocyte adhesion to the wall, which can falsely lower cell counts in samples with low cellularity. A second tube should be available for protein analysis if the sample is bloody, because the first tube may contain iatrogenic blood contamination. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is the preferred anticoagulant for cytology, but the sample should be split: one aliquot without additives for protein determination and culture, and one with EDTA for cell counting and cytologic preparation. Do not use lithium heparin for samples intended for cytology, as heparin can cause clumping of mononuclear cells and interferes with some staining methods.

Samples should be processed within 30 to 60 minutes of collection. Cells begin to degenerate rapidly, and delayed analysis produces falsely low nucleated cell counts with a shift toward lymphocytic predominance as neutrophils and macrophages lyse. If immediate analysis is impossible, refrigeration slows degeneration but does not prevent it. Refrigerated samples should be analyzed within 4 to 6 hours. Do not freeze CSF, as freezing destroys cellular morphology and alters protein fractions.

Step-by-Step Collection Protocol

Patient Preparation and Positioning

General anesthesia is required for CSF collection in dogs and cats. Light anesthesia with spontaneous ventilation is acceptable, but the plane must be deep enough to prevent movement during needle placement. In cattle and horses, sedation combined with local anesthesia and physical restraint is often sufficient, particularly for lumbosacral collection. The collection site should be clipped and aseptically prepared. Sterile gloves should be worn, and the needle hub must not contact the skin or hair during the procedure.

For cisternal collection, the patient is positioned in lateral recumbency with the head held at a 90 degree angle to the cervical spine. The head is flexed ventrally so that the nose is directed toward the sternum. The external occipital protuberance and the cranial borders of the wings of the atlas are palpated. The collection site is on the midline, in the depression between the occipital protuberance and the cranial edge of the atlas. The needle is directed parallel to the table surface, aimed toward the angle of the mandible. A sudden loss of resistance, often accompanied by a tail flick or subtle movement of the patient, indicates dural penetration.

For lumbosacral collection, the patient is positioned in sternal recumbency with the pelvic limbs drawn cranially to flex the lumbosacral junction. The wings of the ilium and the dorsal spinous process of L7 are palpated. The site is on the midline, in the depression caudal to L7 and cranial to the sacrum. The needle is directed slightly cranially, at an angle of approximately 10 to 15 degrees from perpendicular. In dogs, the lumbosacral space is wider than the cisternal space, making this site technically easier but yielding lower cell counts and protein concentrations.

Needle Placement and Fluid Collection

Advance the needle slowly and deliberately. Remove the stylet periodically to check for fluid flow. Once the subarachnoid space is entered, CSF should flow freely into the hub. If no fluid appears, rotate the needle slightly or advance it a millimeter at a time. Never aspirate CSF with a syringe, as negative pressure can cause hemorrhage or herniation of the brainstem. Allow the fluid to drip into the collection tube by gravity.

Collect 0.5 to 1.0 mL from a cat or small dog, 1.0 to 2.0 mL from a medium or large dog, and 2.0 to 5.0 mL from cattle and horses. Larger volumes are not necessary for routine analysis and increase the risk of complications. If the fluid is bloody, collect a second tube and note whether the blood clears. Progressive clearing suggests iatrogenic hemorrhage, whereas persistent blood throughout the sample suggests pre-existing subarachnoid hemorrhage.

After collection, withdraw the needle with the stylet in place. Apply gentle pressure to the site for 30 to 60 seconds. The patient should be monitored for 15 to 30 minutes after recovery from anesthesia for signs of brainstem compression, including irregular respiration, bradycardia, or altered mentation. These complications are rare but require immediate intervention if they occur.

Species-Specific Modifications

Cattle and other ruminants present specific challenges. The thick skin and nuchal ligament require firm, controlled pressure during needle advancement. The cisternal site is more commonly used in cattle because the lumbosacral space is difficult to access in adult animals due to the fused sacral vertebrae. In calves, the lumbosacral site is accessible and preferred when cervical disease is suspected. A retrospective study of 102 cattle with central nervous system disorders found that CSF analysis was diagnostically useful across a range of infectious and noninfectious conditions, supporting its routine use in bovine neurology Stokol et al., cerebrospinal fluid findings in cattle with central nervous system disorders.

Horses are typically collected at the atlanto-occipital site under standing sedation with the head lowered. The lumbosacral site is rarely used in adult horses because of the depth of the space and the risk of spinal cord trauma. In small ruminants, the lumbosacral site is preferred due to the risk of brainstem trauma at the cisternal site.

Interpretation of Cerebrospinal Fluid Findings

Normal Values and Reference Intervals

Reference intervals for CSF parameters vary by species, collection site, and laboratory. Cisternal CSF normally contains fewer than 5 nucleated cells per microliter in dogs and cats, with a predominance of small lymphocytes and occasional monocytes. Total protein is typically less than 25 to 30 mg/dL in cisternal samples and less than 40 to 45 mg/dL in lumbosacral samples. Cattle and horses have slightly higher reference values, particularly for protein. Each laboratory should establish its own reference intervals following the quality assurance guidance of the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology ASVCP quality assurance guidelines.

Cytologic Patterns and Differential Diagnosis

The cellular differential is the most diagnostically informative component of CSF analysis. A mononuclear pleocytosis with lymphocytic predominance is the classic pattern of granulomatous meningoencephalomyelitis (GME) in dogs. In a retrospective series of 22 dogs with histologically confirmed GME, cisternal CSF showed a mean total white blood cell count of 800 cells per microliter with a predominantly lymphoplasmacytic differential, although a neutrophilic component was present in most samples Bailey and Higgins, characteriztics of cerebrospinal fluid associated with canine granulomatous meningoencephalomyelitis. This pattern is not pathognomonic, as viral encephalitis, protozoal infection, and lymphoma can produce similar findings.

A neutrophilic pleocytosis with degenerate neutrophils suggests bacterial meningitis or meningoencephalitis. This pattern is common in neonatal meningitis in calves and in otitis interna with extension to the central nervous system. The presence of intracellular bacteria confirms septic meningitis, but their absence does not exclude it. A mixed pleocytosis with neutrophils, macrophages, and lymphocytes is typical of fungal infection, protozoal encephalitis, and steroid-responsive meningitis-arteritis in dogs.

Neoplastic lymphocytes in CSF are diagnostic of central nervous system lymphoma. In a retrospective evaluation of 23 cats with spinal lymphosarcoma, neoplastic lymphocytes were identified in CSF from 6 of 17 cats evaluated Lane et al., feline spinal lymphosarcoma. The absence of neoplastic cells does not exclude lymphoma, particularly in cats with extradural disease that does not communicate with the subarachnoid space.

Protein Analysis

Total protein is measured by turbidimetric or dye-binding methods. Albumin quotient and immunoglobulin index can be calculated when a blood sample is collected concurrently, allowing differentiation of blood-brain barrier disruption from intrathecal immunoglobulin production. An elevated albumin quotient indicates barrier disruption, whereas an elevated immunoglobulin index with a normal albumin quotient suggests local antibody production, as seen in inflammatory and infectious diseases.

Documentation and Reporting

The CSF analysis report should include the collection site, volume, gross appearance, nucleated cell count, red blood cell count, total protein concentration, and a 100-cell differential count when sufficient cells are present. The cytologic description should note cell morphology, the presence of degenerate neutrophils, macrophages with phagocytosed material, and any atypical cells. Photomicrographs of diagnostic cells should be archived in the medical record.

The interpretation should integrate CSF findings with the neurologic examination, signalment, and imaging results. A normal CSF analysis does not exclude central nervous system disease. In dogs with suspected idiopathic epilepsy, the International Veterinary Epilepsy Task Force consensus proposal notes that CSF analysis is not required when tier I criteria for idiopathic epilepsy are met and magnetic resonance imaging is unremarkable De Risio et al., international veterinary epilepsy task force consensus proposal. Conversely, an abnormal CSF analysis in a dog with seizures and multifocal neurologic signs supports inflammatory disease and should guide further diagnostic testing and empirical therapy.

Complications and Failure Modes

Cerebrospinal fluid collection carries recognized risks that vary by site and species. Brain herniation is the most feared complication after cisternal puncture in animals with increased intracranial pressure. Subtle signs include progressive obtundation, irregular respiratory patterns, anisocoria, or decerebrate posturing within minutes to hours after collection. Detection depends on serial neurologic assessment before and after the procedure, with particular attention to mentation and pupillary symmetry.

Cardiorespiratory compromise can occur during cisternal puncture, especially in brachycephalic breeds or animals positioned with excessive neck flexion. Vagal events manifest as bradycardia, hypotension, or syncope. Monitoring pulse quality and mucous membrane color throughout the procedure allows early intervention. Hemorrhage from venous sinus puncture appears as progressively bloodier fluid, a traumatic tap is confirmed when the fluid clears during collection or when red blood cells are present without concurrent xanthochromia.

Needle-related trauma to the spinal cord or nerve roots is more common with lumbar collection. A sudden limb withdrawal, vocalisation, or tail flick during needle advancement suggests nerve root contact. The needle should be withdrawn slightly and repositioned. Repeated attempts increase the risk of iatrogenic hemorrhage and tissue damage.

Common Errors and Corrective Actions

Less experienced clinicians frequently misjudge needle depth during cisternal puncture. The atlanto-occipital space lies deeper in large or obese dogs than expected, and premature stylet removal yields no flow. Conversely, advancing too far penetrates the medulla. The corrective action is to advance in small increments, removing the stylet every 1 to 2 mm once the ligamentum nuchae is felt to pop.

Sample contamination with blood is often mistaken for pre-existing hemorrhage. A truly traumatic tap shows a gradient of bloodiness between collection tubes, whereas subarachnoid hemorrhage produces uniform discolouration. Centrifuging a portion of the sample and inspecting the supernatant for xanthochromia distinguishes fresh blood contamination from chronic hemorrhage.

Cytologic artefacts arise from delayed processing. Cells degenerate within 30 to 60 minutes, particularly neutrophils, which become pyknotic and difficult to classify. Refrigerating the sample slows degeneration but does not stop it. Clinicians who cannot process samples within one hour should prepare a direct smear at the time of collection and submit both the smear and the chilled fluid.

Inadequate volume is a recurring problem, especially in small patients. A minimum of 0.5 to 1 mL is needed for routine cytology and protein measurement. Collecting less than this forces the laboratory to prioritize one test over another. The clinician should decide before collection whether cytology or protein analysis takes precedence if volume is limited.

Limitations of Current Evidence

The evidence base for CSF interpretation in veterinary neurology is drawn largely from retrospective case series with small numbers and variable inclusion criteria. The classic description of granulomatous meningoencephalomyelitis as a lymphoplasmacytic pleocytosis with elevated protein derives from a 22-dog histologically confirmed series, and the authors noted substantial variability between cases Bailey and Higgins, 1986. Neutrophilic predominance occurred in a minority of cisternal samples, which challenges the assumption that a purely mononuclear picture is required for diagnosis.

Prognostic claims based on CSF findings remain contested. One retrospective study of 42 dogs with granulomatous meningoencephalomyelitis found that CSF parameters did not independently predict survival, whereas radiation therapy did Muñana and Luttgen, 1998. Clinicians should therefore avoid using CSF cell counts or protein concentration alone to counsel owners on prognosis.

Species-specific data are uneven. The bovine literature shows that mild mononuclear pleocytosis occurs across multiple disease categories, including listeriosis, viral infections, salt poisoning, and trauma, which limits the discriminatory value of CSF analysis in cattle Stokol et al., 2009. Feline spinal lymphosarcoma is diagnosed cytologically in only a subset of affected cats, with neoplastic lymphocytes identified in 6 of 17 cases in one series Lane et al., 1994. A negative CSF result does not exclude neoplasia.

Expert opinion still differs on the value of routine CSF collection in animals with normal magnetic resonance imaging. Some neurologists advocate collection in all suspected inflammatory cases, while others reserve it for cases where imaging is equivocal. The International Veterinary Epilepsy Task Force consensus places CSF analysis within the tiered diagnostic framework for epilepsy but does not mandate it in all patients De Risio et al., 2015. This reflects genuine uncertainty about the yield of CSF analysis in structurally normal brains.

Referral and Escalation Criteria

Referral to a veterinary neurologist is warranted when CSF collection fails after two attempts, when the patient has progressive neurologic signs, or when imaging is unavailable but inflammatory or neoplastic disease is suspected. Specialist centers offer magnetic resonance imaging, which substantially improves diagnostic accuracy before CSF collection.

Laboratory consultation is appropriate when cytology shows atypical cells, when cell counts are unexpectedly high or low relative to clinical signs, or when protein electrophoresis is needed to characterize a paraprotein. Clinical pathologists can also advise on sample quality and the need for repeat collection.

Regulatory reporting applies when CSF findings suggest a notifiable disease. Rabies should be considered in any animal with progressive encephalopathy and unexplained behavioral change, particularly where human exposure has occurred. The WOAH terrestrial animal health standards list reportable neurologic diseases, and national authorities should be contacted promptly. The AVMA practice resources provide guidance on zoonotic disease protocols and public health responsibilities.

Frequently Asked Questions

How should I proceed when CSF collection is indicated but advanced imaging is unavailable?

Without prior imaging, CSF collection carries increased risk if intracranial mass lesions or elevated intracranial pressure are present. In these circumstances, perform a focused neurologic examination to lateralize or localize disease, and assess for signs of rostro-tentorial or caudal fossa herniation. If you proceed, use a smaller volume, typically 0.5 to 1 mL in dogs and cats, and collect slowly. Consider postponing collection when papilledema, stupor, or abnormal pupillary light responses suggest severe intracranial hypertension. The International Veterinary Epilepsy Task Force consensus proposal emphasizes that CSF analysis is most valuable when interpreted alongside imaging findings, so document the absence of imaging as a limitation in the medical record.

What alternatives exist when a practice lacks a commercial CSF collection kit?

Standard spinal needles with stylets, 20 to 22 gauge for dogs and 22 to 25 gauge for cats, work reliably. Use a needle without a stylet only if no alternative exists, since tissue cores can obstruct the lumen or contaminate the sample. Collect into an EDTA tube for cytology and a plain serum tube for protein and culture. If only one tube is possible, EDTA is preferred because cell preservation matters more than protein quantification. For sample transport without refrigeration, keep the EDTA tube cool but not frozen, and submit within 2 hours. The ASVCP quality assurance guidelines address sample handling and stability expectations that apply across specimen types.

How does CSF interpretation differ between cattle and small animals?

Bovine CSF shares the general principles of small animal interpretation, but disease prevalence shifts the differential diagnosis. Bacterial infections, especially listeriosis and neonatal meningitis, dominate central nervous system disease in cattle. A retrospective study of 102 cattle found that mild mononuclear pleocytosis was typical of listeriosis but also occurred with abscesses, viral infections, salt poisoning, and trauma, while neonatal meningitis produced marked neutrophilic pleocytosis. Normal bovine CSF may contain slightly higher protein concentrations than canine CSF, and collection from the lumbosacral space is more common than cisternal puncture in adult cattle. Reference intervals from small animal laboratories should not be applied directly to bovine samples.

What should I tell an owner when CSF analysis is recommended but they are concerned about cost?

Explain that CSF analysis provides diagnostic information that blood tests and imaging cannot, particularly for inflammatory, infectious, and neoplastic diseases of the nervous system. In feline spinal lymphosarcoma, for example, neoplastic lymphocytes were identified in CSF in 6 of 17 cats evaluated, which can confirm a diagnosis without biopsy. Frame the cost as a diagnostic investment that may avoid prolonged or ineffective treatment trials. Offer a tiered approach, such as cytology alone versus cytology with protein and culture, so owners can choose based on their budget. Document the discussion and the owner's decision in the medical record. Refer to the AVMA practice resources for guidance on client communication and informed consent.

When is a repeat CSF tap clinically justified?

Repeat collection is indicated when initial results are nondiagnostic but clinical suspicion remains high, when monitoring response to therapy, or when a new neurologic sign develops during treatment. In granulomatous meningoencephalomyelitis, serial CSF analysis can document resolution of pleocytosis during immunosuppressive therapy, although clinical improvement does not always correlate with CSF normalization. For cats with neurologic feline infectious peritonitis treated with antiviral therapy, serial CSF analysis including coronavirus titers and RT-PCR was used to document treatment response in one reported case. Repeat taps carry the same risks as the initial collection, so weigh the diagnostic yield against anesthetic and procedural risk for each patient.

How should I document CSF findings in the medical record?

Record the collection site, needle gauge, volume obtained, appearance, and any difficulty encountered during the procedure. Note whether the sample was bloody and whether the blood was traumatic or pre-existing. Document the time from collection to analysis, the laboratory used, and the reference intervals applied. Report total nucleated cell count, red blood cell count, total protein, and the cytologic differential with a description of cell morphology. Include a written interpretation that integrates CSF findings with neurologic localization and imaging results. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides species-specific reference values that can be cited in the record when laboratory-specific intervals are unavailable.

Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

• Peripheral Blood Smear Evaluation: A Step-by-Step Guide
• Reticulocyte Counts in Veterinary Medicine: Clinical Utility and Interpretation
• Monitoring Hematologic Recovery After Chemotherapy in Veterinary Patients

References and Further Reading

• Cerebrospinal fluid findings in cattle with central nervous system disorders: a retrospective study of 102 cases (1990-2008).. 2009.
• Feline spinal lymphosarcoma: a retrospective evaluation of 23 cats.. 1994.
• Characteriztics of cerebrospinal fluid associated with canine granulomatous meningoencephalomyelitis: a retrospective study.. 1986.
• International veterinary epilepsy task force consensus proposal: diagnostic approach to epilepsy in dogs.. 2015.
• Antiviral treatment using the adenosine nucleoside analogue GS-441524 in cats with clinically diagnosed neurological feline infectious peritonitis.. 2020.
• Prognostic factors for dogs with granulomatous meningoencephalomyelitis: 42 cases (1982-1996).. 1998.
• American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology Guidelines. American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology.
• MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition. MSD Veterinary Manual.
• American Veterinary Medical Association Practice Resources. American Veterinary Medical Association.

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This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.