Dental Nerve Blocks in Veterinary Dentistry: Maxillary and Mandibular Techniques

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-08-11

Key Takeaways

• Maxillary and mandibular nerve blocks are integral to multimodal analgesia in veterinary dentistry, providing pre-emptive pain relief, reducing inhalant anesthetic requirements, and improving postoperative comfort by targeting the maxillary nerve (CN V2) at the pterygopalatine fossa and the inferior alveolar nerve (branch of CN V3) at the mandibular foramen, respectively.
• The maxillary nerve block desensitizes the ipsilateral maxillary teeth, hard palate, and nasal cavity, with percutaneous and infraorbital foramen approaches being primary in dogs, while cats may also utilize intraoral techniques; the mandibular nerve block targets the inferior alveolar nerve for anesthesia of ipsilateral mandibular teeth and lower lip.
• Lidocaine offers rapid onset (5-10 minutes) and shorter duration (60-120 minutes), while bupivacaine provides a slower onset (10-20 minutes) but longer duration (180-360 minutes), making the latter preferable for prolonged procedures or significant postoperative pain.
• Key complications include retrograde injection into the pterygopalatine fossa, hematoma, and globe penetration for maxillary blocks, and hemorrhage from the inferior alveolar artery or inadvertent lingual nerve blockade for mandibular blocks, necessitating careful aspiration and slow injection.
• Block efficacy must be verified indirectly in anesthetized patients through reduced autonomic responses (heart rate, blood pressure) and, ideally, by testing the surgical field with a blunt stimulus prior to incision, as variability in desensitization areas can occur.

This article provides a procedural reference for performing maxillary and mandibular nerve blocks in dogs and cats undergoing dental and oral surgery. It is written for practicing veterinarians who perform dental procedures under general anesthesia and wish to refine their regional anesthesia technique. The content covers relevant anatomy, drug selection, equipment, step-by-step technique for each block, and recognition of complications. The focus is confined to the maxillary nerve and its branches, and the mandibular nerve and its branches, as used for dental analgesia.

Regional anesthesia is a core component of multimodal analgesia in small animal dentistry. Local nerve blocks provide pre-emptive analgesia, reduce the requirement for inhalant anesthetics, and improve patient comfort in the recovery period. The AAHA anesthesia and monitoring guidelines endorse the use of locoregional techniques as part of a balanced anesthetic plan, and the WSAVA Global Pain Council guidelines similarly recommend multimodal approaches that include local anesthetics. This article assumes the reader is familiar with basic anesthetic monitoring and aseptic technique, and it does not cover other regional blocks such as the infraorbital block in isolation, the middle mental block as a standalone technique, or maxillary and mandibular blocks in non-dental contexts.

At a Glance

Anatomic Basis for Dental Nerve Blocks

The maxillary nerve is the second division of the trigeminal nerve. It exits the cranium through the round foramen and courses through the pterygopalatine fossa, where it gives off branches that supply the maxillary teeth, the hard palate, the nasal cavity, and the upper lip. The infraorbital nerve is the terminal continuation of the maxillary nerve, and it exits the infraorbital foramen on the rostral face. A block performed at the level of the infraorbital foramen desensitizes the rostral maxillary structures, but it does not reliably anesthetize the caudal maxillary teeth. To achieve complete maxillary dental anesthesia, the injection must be placed more caudally, at the level of the pterygopalatine fossa, where the maxillary nerve is still a single trunk.

The mandibular nerve is the third division of the trigeminal nerve. It passes through the oval foramen and descends medial to the lateral pterygoid muscle. The inferior alveolar nerve branches from the mandibular nerve and enters the mandibular foramen on the medial surface of the mandible. It courses through the mandibular canal, giving off branches to the premolar and molar teeth, and terminates as the mental nerve, which exits through the mental foramina. A block at the mandibular foramen desensitizes the entire ipsilateral mandibular dental quadrant, whereas a block at the mental foramen only desensitizes the rostral structures. This distinction is clinically important because a mental nerve block does not provide anesthesia for caudal mandibular procedures, as demonstrated in a study of desensitization areas following mental nerve block in dogs, which found that the area of desensitized tissues was smaller than expected and highly variable within the study group.

Pharmacology of Local Anesthetics for Dental Blocks

Local anesthetics used for dental nerve blocks in small animals are typically amide-type agents, most commonly lidocaine and bupivacaine. Lidocaine has a rapid onset and a duration of action of approximately 60 to 120 minutes. Bupivacaine has a slower onset and a duration of action of 180 to 360 minutes, making it useful for procedures expected to cause significant postoperative pain. The choice between these agents depends on the anticipated duration of the procedure and the expected level of postoperative discomfort. For prolonged procedures or those involving multiple extractions, bupivacaine is often preferred. For shorter procedures, lidocaine may be sufficient.

The volume of injectate influences the spread of the local anesthetic within the tissue plane. A cadaveric study of injectate distribution for two maxillary nerve block techniques in cats found no significant difference in the length of stained nerve between the infraorbital foramen and percutaneous maxillary approaches, and no significant difference between injectate volumes of 0.2 and 0.4 mL. This finding suggests that smaller volumes are adequate for feline maxillary nerve blockade, which may reduce the risk of local anesthetic toxicity in small patients. Current formulary references should be consulted for maximum recommended doses of lidocaine and bupivacaine in dogs and cats, as these doses vary by species and by the specific product label.

Patient Preparation and General Considerations

Nerve blocks are performed in anesthetized patients. The perioperative anesthetic care of the cat undergoing dental and oral procedures emphasizes that local nerve blocks reduce the amount of anesthetic agents needed to maintain an adequate level of anesthesia, which is particularly relevant in older patients with limited homeostatic reserves. The same principle applies to dogs, although the margin of safety is generally wider in larger patients.

The injection site should be aseptically prepared prior to the procedure, as described in the regional nerve blocks for equine dentistry reference, which, while written for horses, establishes the standard of aseptic preparation that applies across species. The oral cavity is not sterile, and the risk of introducing contamination into the pterygopalatine fossa or the mandibular canal is a genuine concern. For intraoral approaches, a chlorhexidine solution applied to the mucosa at the injection site is appropriate. For percutaneous approaches, clipping and surgical scrub of the skin over the zygomatic arch is required.

The patient should be positioned in lateral recumbency with the head slightly elevated. The anesthetist should confirm that the patient is at an adequate anesthetic depth before performing the block, as the injection itself is a noxious stimulus. The use of a nerve stimulator or ultrasound guidance is not required for these blocks, but it may be helpful in patients with abnormal anatomy or in teaching settings. The nerve stimulator and ultrasound guidance for regional anesthesia in small animals reference provides additional detail on these adjuncts, but the dental nerve blocks described here are most commonly performed using landmark-based techniques.

Contraindications and Cautions

Absolute contraindications to dental nerve blocks include coagulopathy, infection at the injection site, and patient allergy to amide local anesthetics. Relative contraindications include severe maxillary or mandibular fractures that distort the normal landmarks, and the presence of neoplasia in the region of the injection site. In cats, the small size of the pterygopalatine fossa and the proximity of the globe make the percutaneous maxillary approach technically demanding. The operator must be aware of the risk of retrograde injection into the orbit, which can cause temporary or permanent blindness. This complication is rare but has been reported, and it is a reason to prefer the intraoral approach in cats when the operator is less experienced with the percutaneous technique.

The evidence base for the efficacy of maxillary nerve blocks in cats is limited. The cadaveric evaluation of injectate distribution for two maxillary nerve block techniques in cats provides useful anatomic data, but it does not establish clinical efficacy. Practitioners should be aware that the area of desensitization following a nerve block can be variable, as demonstrated in the mental nerve block study in dogs, and they should verify the adequacy of anesthesia before beginning the surgical procedure. This verification can be performed by applying a noxious stimulus to the gingiva or by observing the patient's response to the initial incision.

Maxillary Nerve Block: Approaches and Execution

The maxillary nerve block is indicated for procedures involving the premolars, molars, and associated soft tissues of the upper arcade. Two practical approaches exist in small animal practice: the infraorbital foramen approach and the percutaneous maxillary approach. The choice between them depends on the target tooth, patient size, and operator preference.

Infraorbital Foramen Approach

The infraorbital foramen is palpated dorsal to the third premolar, at the rostral limit of the zygomatic arch. The nerve exits this foramen after traversing the infraorbital canal, which communicates with the pterygopalatine fossa. For rostral maxillary procedures, depositing local anesthetic at the foramen itself is sufficient. For caudal maxillary procedures, the needle must be advanced into the canal to carry the injectate closer to the maxillary nerve trunk.

Cadaveric work in cats has shown that needle advancement into the infraorbital canal is not required to achieve effective staining of the maxillary nerve, and that a smaller injectate volume of 0.2 mL produces comparable nerve staining to 0.4 mL when deposited at the foramen. This finding supports a conservative approach: begin with the foramen-level injection and reserve intra-canal advancement for cases where caudal extension of anesthesia is clinically necessary.

Technique steps:

1. Palpate the infraorbital foramen with the index finger of the non-dominant hand.
2. Insert a 25 to 27 gauge needle, bevel facing bone, at the ventral rim of the foramen.
3. Advance the needle parallel to the long axis of the maxilla, staying in contact with the floor of the canal.
4. Aspirate before injection to confirm no vascular placement.
5. Inject slowly, withdrawing the needle slightly after the first half of the volume to distribute the agent along the canal.

In cats, the foramen is small and the canal short. Excessive advancement risks penetration of the orbit or the pterygopalatine fossa. In brachycephalic dogs, the foramen is often more dorsally positioned and the canal is compressed, making palpation more difficult and advancement less predictable.

Percutaneous Maxillary Approach

The percutaneous approach targets the maxillary nerve as it courses through the pterygopalatine fossa, caudal and dorsal to the last maxillary molar. The needle is inserted ventral to the zygomatic arch, caudal to the orbital ligament, and directed dorsomedially toward the pterygopalatine fossa. This approach is preferred when the infraorbital canal is compromised, when caudal maxillary anesthesia is required, or when the patient's anatomy makes the foramen inaccessible.

The cadaveric comparison of these two techniques in cats found no significant difference in the length of stained nerve between the infraorbital foramen and percutaneous maxillary approaches. Either technique can provide adequate maxillary nerve coverage when performed correctly. The percutaneous approach carries a higher risk of inadvertent vascular puncture or retrobulbar injection, so aspiration and slow incremental injection are mandatory.

Mandibular Nerve Block: Inferior Alveolar and Mental Approaches

Mandibular anesthesia is achieved through the inferior alveolar nerve block, which targets the mandibular foramen on the medial aspect of the mandibular ramus. This block desensitizes the entire ipsilateral mandibular dental quadrant, including the incisors, canine, premolars, and molars, as well as the associated gingiva and mucosa. The mental nerve block, by contrast, targets the middle mental foramen and provides only rostral desensitization.

Inferior Alveolar Nerve Block

The mandibular foramen is located on the medial surface of the mandibular ramus, approximately one-third of the distance from the caudal border to the angular process. The needle is inserted intraorally, medial to the ramus, and directed caudodorsally toward the foramen. The pterygomandibular raphe serves as a useful landmark: the foramen lies just caudal to this structure, at the level of the occlusal plane.

Technique steps:

1. Retract the tongue and soft tissues to expose the medial aspect of the ramus.
2. Palpate the angular process and the coronoid process to establish the plane of the ramus.
3. Insert the needle at the midpoint of the ramus, directed caudodorsally at a 30 degree angle to the sagittal plane.
4. Advance until the needle tip contacts bone, then withdraw 1 to 2 mm.
5. Aspirate and inject slowly.

The inferior alveolar artery and vein accompany the nerve through the mandibular canal. Intravascular injection is a real risk, and aspiration should be performed in two planes. In cats, the foramen is relatively larger and more accessible than in dogs, but the ramus is thinner and the risk of penetrating the medial pterygoid muscle is higher.

Mental Nerve Block

The middle mental foramen is located on the lateral surface of the mandible, ventral to the first and second premolars. The mental nerve block is appropriate for procedures confined to the rostral mandible, including incisor extractions, canine extractions, and rostral mandibulectomy.

The desensitized area from a mental nerve block is smaller than commonly assumed. A study in dogs using bupivacaine at the middle mental foramen found that the area of desensitization was highly variable and did not reliably include the incisive and rostral regions of the mandible. Clinicians should verify the extent of anesthesia before proceeding and be prepared to supplement with local infiltration or an inferior alveolar block if the surgical field extends beyond the desensitized zone.

Equipment and Consumable Selection

Needle selection follows the same principles as other regional anesthetic techniques. A 25 gauge, 1.5 inch needle is appropriate for most dogs. A 27 gauge, 0.5 to 1 inch needle is better suited to cats and small dogs. Short bevel needles reduce the risk of intraneural injection and are preferred when advancing into a foramen or canal.

Local anesthetic choice should reflect the anticipated duration of the procedure and the need for postoperative analgesia. Bupivacaine provides longer duration but has a slower onset and a higher cardiotoxicity risk if inadvertently injected intravascularly. Lidocaine has a faster onset and shorter duration. The addition of epinephrine is generally unnecessary in the oral cavity, where vascularity is high and hemostasis is managed surgically.

Current formulary references should be consulted for species-specific doses and maximum allowable volumes. The total dose of local anesthetic administered across all blocks must be calculated before the procedure begins, and the sum of all injections must not exceed the toxic threshold for the patient's body weight.

Monitoring and Verification of Block Efficacy

The patient under general anesthesia cannot report the onset of anesthesia. The clinician must verify block efficacy through indirect signs. A reduction in heart rate and blood pressure following the block, in the absence of other interventions, suggests that nociceptive input has been reduced. Conversely, an acute increase in heart rate or blood pressure when the surgical stimulus begins indicates incomplete anesthesia and warrants reassessment.

The AAHA anesthesia guidelines emphasize continuous monitoring of heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure, and capnography during the perianesthetic period. These parameters detect the autonomic responses to inadequate analgesia, but they are nonspecific. A patient may respond to surgical stimulation with movement or a change in anesthetic depth even when the block is effective, particularly if the block does not cover the entire surgical field.

The mental nerve block study illustrates this problem: the variability in desensitized area means that a block may be partially effective, providing analgesia to some tissues but not others. The clinician should test the surgical field with a gentle stimulus before incision and should be prepared to convert to a more proximal block if the response suggests incomplete coverage.

Documentation and Record Keeping

The anesthetic record should include the specific block performed, the approach used, the local anesthetic agent and volume, the needle gauge, and the time of administration. The response to surgical stimulation, any supplemental analgesia administered, and the duration of postoperative analgesia should also be recorded. This documentation supports postoperative pain assessment and provides a basis for adjusting the analgesic plan if the block duration is shorter than expected.

The WSAVA Global Pain Council guidelines recommend that analgesic plans be individualized and reassessed at regular intervals. The dental nerve block is one component of a multimodal plan that includes systemic analgesics and, where indicated, anti-inflammatory agents. The record should reflect how the block contributes to the overall plan and whether it achieved the expected effect.

Complications and Failure Modes

Local anesthetic toxicity is the most serious complication of dental nerve blocks. Intravascular injection, rapid absorption, or accidental administration of an excessive total dose produces central nervous system excitation followed by cardiovascular depression. Early signs include muscle twitching, tremors, and agitation under light anesthesia, progressing to seizures, bradycardia, hypotension, and ventricular arrhythmias. Detection depends on continuous electrocardiographic and blood pressure monitoring throughout the procedure, as the anesthetized patient cannot display subjective symptoms. The AAHA anesthesia and monitoring guidelines recommend continuous assessment of heart rate, rhythm, and perfusion parameters for all anesthetized patients, which permits early recognition of toxicity before cardiovascular collapse.

Needle trauma to neurovascular structures produces hemorrhage, paresthesia, or transient neuropraxia. The infraorbital and mental foramina contain the respective nerves alongside small arteries and veins. Laceration of these vessels creates facial swelling or retrobulbar hematoma in the maxillary approach. Direct needle contact with the nerve trunk during injection can cause prolonged postoperative dysesthesia, particularly in cats where the maxillary nerve lies within a confined pterygopalatine fossa. Detection relies on postoperative assessment of lip tone, jaw movement, and facial sensation once the patient recovers. Most neuropraxias resolve within days to weeks, but persistent deficits warrant specialist evaluation.

Incomplete or failed blockade is the most common practical failure. The mental nerve block in dogs produces an area of desensitization that is smaller than expected and highly variable between individuals, and it does not reliably anesthetize the incisive and rostral mandibular regions area of desensitization following mental nerve block in dogs. A clinician who assumes complete ipsilateral mandibular anesthesia after a mental block may begin extraction and provoke a withdrawal response or acute sympathetic surge. The discriminating check is to test block efficacy with a blunt probe at the surgical site before incision, as described in the monitoring section of this article.

Common Errors and Corrective Action

Less experienced clinicians frequently misidentify the infraorbital foramen, directing the needle too dorsally toward the orbit. The foramen lies at the junction of the rostral and middle thirds of the infraorbital canal, palpable just dorsal to the upper fourth premolar root. Corrective action is to palpate the facial crest and follow it rostrally to the foramen, then direct the needle ventromedially, never dorsally.

A second common error is advancing the needle too far into the infraorbital canal. In cats, cadaveric work shows that needle advancement into the canal is not necessary to achieve effective staining of the maxillary nerve, and smaller volumes at the foramen produce adequate distribution cadaveric evaluation of injectate distribution for two maxillary nerve block techniques in cats. Excessive advancement risks penetrating the orbit or traumatizing the nerve. The corrective action is to advance only until the needle tip engages the foramen, then inject slowly.

Aspiration before injection is frequently omitted or performed incorrectly. The needle must be rotated or repositioned because the bevel can seat against the vessel wall and produce a false negative aspiration. Negative pressure should be maintained for two seconds. If blood appears, withdraw, flush, and redirect.

A fourth error is using an excessive volume of local anesthetic to compensate for uncertain placement. Larger volumes do not reliably improve spread and increase toxicity risk. The feline cadaver study found no significant difference in injectate distribution between 0.2 and 0.4 ml volumes at the infraorbital foramen cadaveric evaluation of injectate distribution for two maxillary nerve block techniques in cats. Use the smallest volume that achieves the required field.

Evidence Limitations and Divergent Expert Opinion

The evidence base for dental nerve blocks in small animals is thinner than in equine practice, where regional blocks are described as critical for standing dental surgery regional nerve blocks for equine dentistry. Most canine and feline data derive from cadaveric injection studies, small clinical series, or extrapolation from human oral surgery. Comparative efficacy of the infraorbital versus percutaneous maxillary approach in clinical patients remains unsettled. The feline cadaver study found no significant difference in nerve staining between techniques, but cadaveric dye distribution does not directly measure analgesia in live tissue cadaveric evaluation of injectate distribution for two maxillary nerve block techniques in cats.

Expert opinion diverges on whether the mental nerve block is worth performing at all given its unreliable rostral mandibular coverage. Some clinicians advocate always combining it with an inferior alveolar block for mandibular procedures, while others reserve it for incisor and canine surgery where the inferior alveolar approach is technically difficult. The WSAVA Global Pain Council guidelines endorse multimodal analgesia but do not specify a preferred block technique, reflecting the absence of comparative trials.

Referral and Escalation Criteria

Referral to a veterinary dental specialist is warranted when anatomic landmarks are obscured by trauma, mass lesions, or severe periodontal disease, when a patient has experienced a prior block-related complication, or when postoperative neurologic deficits persist beyond two weeks. Specialist imaging, including computed tomography, may be required to characterize perineural pathology or suspected retrobulbar hemorrhage.

Laboratory involvement is indicated when local anesthetic toxicity is suspected, particularly for measurement of serum electrolyte concentrations and acid-base status in patients with seizures or arrhythmias. Regulatory reporting obligations vary by jurisdiction. The AVMA practice resources and WOAH terrestrial animal health standards provide guidance on adverse event reporting, but veterinarians must confirm the specific requirements of their local regulatory body.

Frequently Asked Questions

How do I choose between the infraorbital foramen and percutaneous maxillary approaches in cats?

The infraorbital foramen approach is generally preferred in cats because it is less technically demanding and avoids the risk of penetrating the orbit or pterygopalatine fossa. Cadaveric work comparing injectate distribution between the two techniques found no significant difference in the length of stained maxillary nerve, and needle advancement into the infraorbital canal was not required for effective staining. The same study showed that a smaller volume, 0.2 ml, produced adequate nerve staining compared with 0.4 ml. For most feline dental procedures, the infraorbital approach with the smaller volume offers a favorable balance of efficacy and safety. Reserve the percutaneous approach for cases where the infraorbital foramen cannot be located or where broader maxillary coverage is specifically required.

What should I do when I cannot palpate the infraorbital foramen reliably?

Obesity, trauma, or prior maxillary surgery can obscure the foramen. In these cases, use the percutaneous maxillary approach instead of repeatedly probing the soft tissues. Alternatively, consider ultrasound guidance if available, as it permits direct visualization of the foramen and needle tip. When neither option is feasible, rely on a higher-volume infraorbital injection placed at the foramen without attempting canal entry, since the available evidence indicates that needle advancement into the canal is not necessary for adequate nerve staining. Document the difficulty and the alternative approach used. If the block is uncertain, verify efficacy with a response to noxious stimulus before proceeding, and supplement with systemic analgesia as needed.

How does the mental nerve block differ between dogs and cats?

The mental foramen is located more caudally relative to the premolars in cats than in dogs, and the mandible is smaller, so the volume injected must be reduced accordingly. In dogs, the area desensitized by a unilateral mental nerve block is smaller than commonly assumed and highly variable between individuals, based on a study that mapped desensitization after injection at the middle mental foramen. That study concluded the block does not reliably desensitize the incisive and rostral mandibular regions. In both species, the mental block is best reserved for procedures confined to the rostral mandible, and the inferior alveolar block should be used when wider ipsilateral coverage is required. Verify the block before incision in either species.

What are the practical options when bupivacaine is unavailable or cost-prohibitive?

Lidocaine and mepivacaine are acceptable alternatives for dental nerve blocks. Lidocaine has a faster onset, which shortens the interval between block placement and surgical start, but its duration of action is shorter, so it is less suitable for prolonged procedures or for postoperative analgesia that extends beyond the immediate recovery period. Mepivacaine offers an intermediate duration. When using lidocaine, plan to administer systemic analgesics earlier in the perioperative period to compensate for the shorter local effect. The choice of agent should be documented in the anesthetic record, and the current formulary should be consulted for species-specific dosing and maximum allowable volumes. Multimodal analgesia, including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs where appropriate, remains the foundation of pain management regardless of local anesthetic selection.

How should I document a dental nerve block in the medical record?

Record the block name, approach, anesthetic agent, volume, needle gauge and length, and the time of administration. Note the patient's body weight and the calculated dose. Document the method used to verify block efficacy, such as response to noxious stimulus or absence of a heart rate and blood pressure response, and record the result. If the block failed or was revised, document the suspected cause and the corrective action taken. Include a diagram or written description of the injection site if the anatomy was unusual. This level of detail supports accurate perioperative pain management decisions and provides a defensible record if complications arise. The American Animal Hospital Association anesthesia guidelines emphasize thorough documentation as part of standard anesthetic care.

How do I explain a failed dental nerve block to a client or referring veterinarian?

Use direct, factual language. State that the nerve block did not provide complete desensitization of the surgical site, that this occurs in a minority of cases, and that the patient received additional systemic analgesia to maintain comfort. Explain that several factors contribute to block failure, including anatomic variation, inflammation at the injection site, and the inherent variability in how local anesthetics spread through tissue. Do not characterize the failure as an error unless a specific technical mistake was identified. Describe the steps taken to manage the patient's pain during and after the procedure. Reassure the client that pain was assessed continuously and that the anesthetic protocol was adjusted accordingly. This approach maintains trust while accurately representing the limitations of regional anesthesia.

Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

• Anesthetic Machine Leak Testing and Pressure Checks: A Step-by-Step Protocol
• Anesthetic Depth Assessment: Reflexes, Eye Position, and Ventilation
• Anesthesia for Patients with Obesity: Challenges and Solutions

References and Further Reading

• Regional Nerve Blocks for Equine Dentistry.. 2017.
• Perioperative anesthetic care of the cat undergoing dental and oral procedures: key considerations.. 2015.
• Area of desensitization following mental nerve block in dogs.. 2011.
• Bone augmentation versus 5-mm dental implants in posterior atrophic jaws. Four-month post-loading results from a randomised controlled clinical trial.. 2009.
• Posterior atrophic jaws rehabilitated with prostheses supported by 6 mm-long, 4 mm-wide implants or by longer implants in augmented bone. Preliminary results from a pilot randomised controlled trial.. 2012.
• Cadaveric Evaluation of Injectate Distribution for Two Maxillary Nerve Block Techniques in Cats.. 2021.
• AAHA Anesthesia and Monitoring Guidelines for Dogs and Cats. AAHA.
• WSAVA Global Pain Council Guidelines. WSAVA.
• MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition. MSD Veterinary Manual.

Related Articles

• Bovine Anesthesia and Analgesia: Field Techniques and Considerations
• Anesthesia for Patients with Dental Disease: Extractions and Cleaning
• Nerve Stimulator and Ultrasound Guidance for Regional Anesthesia in Small Animals
• Low-Flow Anesthesia Techniques: Safety and Efficiency in Small Animals
• Anesthesia for Patients with Cardiac Disease: Risk Assessment and Monitoring

This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.