Zoonotic Parasites in Dogs: Intestinal Worms and Human Health Risks

Introduction

The close physical and environmental cohabitation of humans and dogs facilitates the transmission of a diverse array of intestinal parasites with zoonotic potential. Parasitic gastroenteritis caused by helminths and protozoa in dogs is a major concern in veterinary medicine, not only for its impact on canine health but also for its capacity to cross species barriers. The question "are dog intestinal parasites contagious to humans" is answered affirmatively for a wide range of agents, including large roundworms (Toxocara canis), hookworms (Ancylostoma caninum, Ancylostoma ceylanicum, Uncinaria stenocephala), tapeworms (Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis, Dipylidium caninum), whipworms (Trichuris vulpis), and the threadworm Strongyloides stercoralis. In addition, protozoan parasites such as Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium spp., Blastocystis sp., and Entamoeba gingivalis have been documented in dogs and pose variable zoonotic risks [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 33]. This article provides a detailed review of the biological, epidemiological, diagnostic, and control dimensions of these parasites, emphasizing the mechanisms by which canine intestinal worms are transmitted to humans and the resulting public health implications.

Etiology and Major Zoonotic Agents

Nematodes

Toxocara canis

Toxocara canis is a large ascarid nematode that matures in the small intestine of canids. Adult females shed thick-shelled eggs that become infective after embryonation in the environment. Humans act as paratenic hosts, and infection occurs through ingestion of embryonated eggs or encapsulated larvae in tissues of intermediate hosts [3, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. Larval migration in humans causes visceral larva migrans (VLM), ocular larva migrans (OLM), and covert toxocariasis, with seroprevalence rates in dog-owning populations often exceeding background levels [3, 15].

Ancylostoma spp. and Uncinaria stenocephala

Canine hookworms include Ancylostoma caninum, Ancylostoma braziliense, Ancylostoma ceylanicum, and Uncinaria stenocephala [16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. Infective third-stage larvae penetrate skin percutaneously or are ingested. In humans, A. caninum and A. braziliense cause cutaneous larva migrans (CLM) as larvae migrate within the epidermis. Ancylostoma ceylanicum, by contrast, can develop to the adult stage in the human intestine, causing patent hookworm disease with abdominal pain and anemia [16, 18]. Molecular surveys have increasingly identified A. ceylanicum in both dog and human fecal samples, confirming its role as a zoonotic agent [16, 18].

Strongyloides stercoralis

Strongyloides stercoralis is a facultative parasitic nematode capable of completing its life cycle inside a single host through autoinfection. Dogs serve as reservoirs for human infection, and molecular studies have demonstrated genetic overlap between canine and human isolates in endemic regions [21, 22, 34]. Hyperinfection syndrome, characterized by massive larval dissemination, has been reported in immunosuppressed dogs and humans [21]. The pleural effusion associated with hyperinfection in a splenectomised dog illustrates the potential severity of this infection [21].

Trichuris vulpis

The canine whipworm Trichuris vulpis is primarily a parasite of dogs but has been reported in humans, particularly in association with visceral pain and eosinophilia. Molecular confirmation remains limited, but epidemiological surveys suggest cross-species transmission can occur [4, 17, 19].

Cestodes

Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato

Echinococcus granulosus occurs in domestic and wild canids as definitive hosts, shedding eggs in feces that are infective to intermediate hosts including humans. Infection in humans causes cystic echinococcosis (hydatid disease), primarily affecting the liver and lungs. Molecular studies have identified E. granulosus sensu stricto in dogs in Turkey and Peru, with risk factors including free-roaming behavior and feeding on offal [23, 24]. Environmental contamination with Echinococcus spp. DNA has been confirmed in high-endemic regions such as the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau [25].

Echinococcus multilocularis

Echinococcus multilocularis is maintained in a sylvatic cycle involving wild canids such as coyotes and foxes, with dogs acting as bridge hosts to humans [26, 27]. The metacestode stage causes alveolar echinococcosis, a progressive and often fatal hepatic disease in humans. Detection in coyotes in Washington State, USA, highlights the expanding geographic range of this parasite [26].

Dipylidium caninum

Dipylidium caninum uses fleas (Ctenocephalides felis, Ctenocephalides canis) as intermediate hosts. Dogs and cats are definitive hosts; humans, especially young children, become infected by accidental ingestion of infected fleas. Molecular characterization from Ghana has provided the first genetic data from West Africa [7]. The parasite is cosmopolitan and considered a minor zoonosis.

Taenia hydatigena and Spirometra spp.

Taenia hydatigena utilizes canids as definitive hosts and causes cysticercosis in ruminants; human infection is rare [27]. Spirometra spp. (including S. erinaceieuropaei) cause sparganosis in humans after ingestion of copepods or paratenic hosts. Proliferative sparganosis has been documented in a dog, demonstrating aberrant migration in canine tissues [28]. Molecular identification from Russia has added to the known diversity of this genus [27].

Protozoa

Giardia duodenalis

Giardia duodenalis is a flagellated protozoan that infects the small intestine of dogs and humans. Zoonotic transmission is associated with assemblages A and B, which are frequently detected in dogs in close contact with humans [2, 5, 9]. Multilocus genotyping and commercial beta-giardin qPCR assays are used to differentiate assemblages [9]. Prevalence is highly variable: a study in Texas canines found social determinants such as poverty and urbanization as significant risk factors [5].

Cryptosporidium spp.

Cryptosporidium parvum, C. hominis, and other species have been detected in dogs, though their role in human cryptosporidiosis appears limited. A study in Yunnan Province, China, assessed zoonotic transmission risk in close human-pet environments and found evidence of cross-species transmission [6]. However, surveys in Central Vietnam (owned dogs) and Ghana (protected area dogs) reported absence or low prevalence of Cryptosporidium [2, 4].

Blastocystis sp.

Blastocystis is a common intestinal protist found in humans and dogs. Subtypes identified in dogs (e.g., ST1–ST4, ST7) overlap with those in humans, indicating potential zoonotic transmission. A study in Gabon reported high genetic diversity of Blastocystis in owned dogs and their owners, supporting a One Health approach to management [33].

Entamoeba gingivalis and Trichomonas tenax

These flagellated protozoa, traditionally considered commensals of the oral cavity, have been detected in dogs, cats, and humans in Guangxi, China, with high prevalence and evidence of cross-species transmission potential [1]. Their role as enteric pathogens remains unclear, but the finding underscores the breadth of protozoan diversity in canine and human populations.

Other Helminths

Dioctophyme renale

Dioctophyme renale, the giant kidney worm, infects canids and wild carnivores after ingestion of infected annelids or fish. While rare in humans, accidental infection can occur. New morphological features and phylogenetic insights have been described from wild and domestic dogs in South America [29].

Nematodes from Invasive Carnivores

Invasive raccoon dogs and raccoons in Central Europe harbor nematodes such as Baylisascaris procyonis (not primarily a dog parasite) and others of veterinary relevance, posing risks to native wildlife and potentially to humans [17, 30].

Epidemiology and Transmission Pathways

Prevalence and Geographic Distribution

The prevalence of zoonotic intestinal parasites in dogs varies widely by region, management practices, and diagnostic methods. Studies from Vietnam reported high rates of Toxocara canis (up to 30%) and Giardia duodenalis (12–25%) in owned and community dogs [2, 11]. A cross-sectional study in Texas documented Giardia in 10.5% of dogs, with higher odds in dogs from areas with lower socioeconomic status [5]. In Ghana's protected areas, canine fecal samples showed zoonotic parasites including Toxocara spp., Ancylostoma spp., and Strongyloides spp., with overlap between human and nonhuman primate populations [4, 18]. Seroprevalence of Toxocara spp. antibodies in dogs from Colombia reached 28.8%, with a significant association with human seropositivity in the same households [3, 15].

Environmental contamination plays a key role: soil and fecal samples from endemic regions in China tested positive for Echinococcus spp. DNA [25]. In the Azores, Portugal, gastrointestinal helminths and cardiopulmonary parasites were common in both owned and stray dogs [20]. In Hungary, nematode diversity in invasive carnivore populations mirrored that in native canids, facilitating spillover [17].

Risk Factors for Zoonotic Transmission

Fecal-oral contact is the primary route for Toxocara and Giardia through ingestion of embryonated eggs or cysts. Percutaneous infection occurs for Ancylostoma and Strongyloides via skin contact with contaminated soil or feces. Children are at highest risk due to geophagia, close contact with pets, and less developed hygiene habits [3, 10]. Owner knowledge is often inadequate: surveys in Bangladesh and Sylhet City found that most dog owners lacked awareness of zoonotic parasitic risks and appropriate prevention measures [31]. Daycare and boarding facilities, travel, and raw feeding practices also increase exposure [21, 8].

Cross-species sharing of parasite communities is well documented in ecosystems with high human-dog-livestock-wildlife interface, such as Lake Nabugabo, Uganda [8], and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda, where Strongyloides spp. circulate among gorillas, humans, and dogs [34].

Clinical Signs and Pathology in Dogs

Dogs infected with intestinal worms may present with a range of clinical signs depending on worm burden, age, and nutritional status. Common signs include diarrhea (sometimes bloody), weight loss, poor coat condition, vomiting (e.g., Toxocara canis adults in vomitus), abdominal distention, and anemia (especially in hookworm infections). Giardia infections produce acute or chronic foul-smelling diarrhea, often with mucus and steatorrhea [5, 9]. Strongyloides stercoralis can cause enteritis and, in immunosuppressed dogs, hyperinfection with respiratory signs, pleural effusion, and systemic dissemination [21]. Sparganosis due to Spirometra presents as subcutaneous or visceral migratory nodules [28]. Many subclinical infections occur, especially in adult dogs with partial immunity.

Pathological Mechanisms

Nematode larvae may induce granulomatous inflammation during tissue migration. Toxocara canis larvae cause liver and lung foci, while Ancylostoma larvae trigger dermatitis and eosinophilic infiltration. Cestode infections (Echinococcus, Taenia) cause pathology primarily in intermediate hosts; adult tapeworms in dog intestine rarely cause clinical signs except in heavy burdens. Diarrhea in protozoal infections is driven by villous atrophy, malabsorption, and increased intestinal permeability.

Diagnostics

Parasitological Methods

Traditional coprological examination using flotation (saturated salt or sugar solutions), sedimentation, and direct wet mount remains the most widely used initial approach. Sensitivity is limited for low-shedding infections and for parasites like Strongyloides that require specific techniques (Baermann funnel, charcoal culture) [21, 19].

Molecular Diagnostics

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and real-time qPCR assays improve sensitivity and specificity for detecting zoonotic parasites. Multiplex PCR allows simultaneous identification of Toxocara canis, T. cati, and Toxascaris leonina in dogs and cats [14]. Commercial beta-giardin qPCR kits efficiently detect Giardia duodenalis with genotyping capability [9]. High-throughput sequencing and metabarcoding using nanopore technology enable comprehensive characterization of nematode communities from fecal DNA, providing species-level identification and detection of mixed infections without a priori target selection [32]. This approach has been validated for human and animal samples and is particularly useful for surveillance in endemic areas [32].

Serological Testing

Serological detection of anti-Toxocara antibodies in dogs uses ELISA based on recombinant excretory-secretory antigens, which offer higher specificity than native antigens [12]. These assays may also be applied to detect environmental exposure in humans in One Health surveys [3, 15].

Imaging and Pathology

Endoscopy with biopsy and molecular confirmation has been used to diagnose atypical gastrointestinal manifestations caused by Ancylostoma ceylanicum [16]. Ultrasound and computed tomography (CT) can identify cystic or alveolar lesions in echinococcosis, though these findings are more relevant in intermediate hosts including humans.

Treatment and Control

Anthelmintic Therapy

Therapeutic options for canine intestinal nematodes include benzimidazoles (fenbendazole), macrocyclic lactones (ivermectin, milbemycin oxime), pyrantel pamoate, and for cestodes praziquantel and epsiprantel. The choice of agent should be guided by parasite spectrum and local resistance patterns. Giardiasis is treated with fenbendazole or metronidazole, though resistance and reinfection are common [5, 9]. Strongyloides stercoralis is treated with ivermectin or albendazole [21, 22]. Dipylidium caninum requires concurrent flea control to prevent reinfection [7].

Preventive Measures

Routine deworming of dogs, especially those with outdoor access or coprophagic behavior, is the cornerstone of control. Frequency should be adjusted according to age (every 2–4 weeks until 12 weeks, then monthly or quarterly depending on risk). Environmental hygiene includes prompt removal of feces and periodic disinfection of soil (e.g., using heat or chemical agents to kill roundworm eggs). For Echinococcus multilocularis in endemic areas, restriction of dog roaming and prohibition of offal feeding are critical [23, 24, 26, 25]. Public education campaigns (e.g., the One Health approach) combined with community-based fecal testing have shown promise in reducing zoonotic transmission [3, 10, 31, 15].

Decision Tree for Diagnosis and Control of Zoonotic Intestinal Parasites in Dogs

The following Mermaid diagram illustrates a clinical diagnostic and control workflow integrating parasitological, molecular, and preventive steps.

flowchart TD
    A[Clinical suspicion or routine health check], > B{Perform fecal flotation / direct smear}
    B, >|Negative| C{High risk or immunocompromised?}
    B, >|Positive| D[Identify parasite morphology]
    C, >|Yes| E[Perform molecular panel qPCR + multipx]
    C, >|No| F[No further action; advise prevention]
    D, > G[Confirm with molecular assay if uncertain]
    G, > H[Determine zoonotic species]
    H, > I[Identify life stage / burden]
    I, > J[Select appropriate anthelmintic or protozoacide]
    J, > K[Administer treatment and recheck 10-14 days]
    K, > L[Re-evaluate fecal exam]
    L, >|Positive| M[Consider resistance / retreatment]
    L, >|Negative| N[Implement environmental and behavioral control]
    E, > O[Identify assemblage / species / subtype]
    O, > P[Assess zoonotic risk based on molecular data]
    P, > J
    N, > Q[Owner education + One Health surveillance]
    M, > R[Anthelmintic sensitivity testing / change drug class]
    R, > K
    Q, > S[Reduced zoonotic transmission]

Figure 1. Decision tree for clinical and molecular diagnosis, treatment, and control of zoonotic intestinal parasites in dogs. The workflow begins with routine fecal examination and progresses to molecular confirmation when indicated, followed by targeted therapy and integrated preventive measures.

Conclusion

Canine intestinal parasites pose a well-established zoonotic risk to humans. Toxocara canis, Ancylostoma spp., Echinococcus spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Strongyloides stercoralis are the most epidemiologically significant agents. The adoption of advanced molecular diagnostics, including nanopore metabarcoding and multiplex qPCR, enhances detection of mixed infections and zoonotic genotypes. Effective control hinges on regular anthelmintic therapy, environmental hygiene, and owner education within a One Health framework. Veterinary professionals must remain vigilant about the ever-changing epidemiology of these parasites, especially in regions where dog-human interactions intensify.

References

[1] Luo B, Yin Z, Liang S, et al. High prevalence and cross-species transmission potential of Entamoeba gingivalis and Trichomonas tenax in humans, dogs, and cats in Guangxi, China. Acta Trop. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42323966/

[2] Le VTT, Hoang MT, Ngo VP, et al. Molecular detection of Giardia duodenalis and the absence of Cryptosporidium spp. in owned dogs from Central Vietnam. Front Parasitol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42311390/

[3] Velásquez Peña MA, Vasquez-Turriago CLA, Vásquez-Trujillo A, et al. Seroprevalence and Risk Factors of Toxocara spp. in Dogs, Cats, and Their Owners in the City of Villavicencio, Colombia: Interaction With the "One Health" Approach. Vet Med Int. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42257049/

[4] Gyarteng Mensah SS, Acheampong B, Streit A, et al. Zoonotic Risk of Intestinal Parasites in Ghana's Protected Areas: A Nexus for Human-Nonhuman Primates-Dog Interactions. J Parasitol Res. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42147739/

[5] Taylor LA, Saleh MN, Rodriguez C, et al. Social determinants of health and temporospatial trends associated with Giardia duodenalis infection in Texas canines. Sci Rep. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42141009/

[6] Cao R, Li D, Zhou Y, et al. Zoonotic Transmission Assessment of Cryptosporidium spp. in Close Human-Pet Environments in Yunnan Province, China. Vet Med Sci. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42033284/

[7] Addy F, Atarikaki E, Dumendiak S, et al. Appraising the genetic diversity of Dipylidium caninum: first molecular evidence from Ghana, West Africa, in a global context. Parasitology. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42003013/

[8] Upadhayay P, Kváč M, Sambucci KM, et al. Overlap in parasite communities among vervet monkeys, humans, livestock and dogs at Lake Nabugabo, Uganda. Parasitology. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41992924/

[9] Scorza AV, Leutenegger CM, Lozoya C, et al. Comparison of multilocus genotyping and a commercial beta-giardin qPCR assay for detection of Giardia duodenalis zoonotic assemblages in cat and dog samples. Parasit Vectors. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41952221/

[10] Reynoso A, Salvador F, Martínez-Campreciós J, et al. Descriptive Analysis of Imported Toxocariasis Cases Diagnosed Between 2014 and 2024 in an International Health Unit in Barcelona, Spain. Trop Med Int Health. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42178138/

[11] Hoang MT, Ng-Nguyen D, Kamyingkird K, et al. Pre-Intervention Assessment of Toxocara Infection in Dogs in Vietnam: A Community-Based Cross-Sectional Study. Animals (Basel). 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42121824/

[12] Kavitha KT, Sreekumar C, Asokkumar M, et al. Serological Detection of Canine Toxocarosis Using Recombinant and Native Toxocara canis Excretory-Secretory Antigens: A Comparative ELISA Study. Parasite Immunol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41944423/

[13] Ozkaya G, Yildirim A, Salkin H, et al. Immunogenicity and protective efficacy of recombinant Toxocara canis inorganic pyrophosphatase protein. Vet Parasitol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41903412/

[14] Ding X, Wan S, Yu J, et al. Development of a novel multiplex PCR assay for the specific identification of Toxocara canis, Toxocara cati and Toxascaris leonina in dogs and cats. Vet Parasitol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41747541/

[15] Bach MB, Kmetiuk LB, Freitas AR, et al. One Health approach on toxocariasis and ophthalmic assessment in owners and dogs. Sci Rep. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41735434/

[16] Ngui R, Sidi Omar SFN, Yaman K, et al. Endoscopic Detection and Molecular Confirmation of Ancylostoma ceylanicum with Atypical Gastrointestinal Manifestations: A Case Series. Acta Parasitol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42223710/

[17] Szentiványi T, Bruszniczky B, Biró Z, et al. Unwelcome guests: Nematodes of zoonotic and animal health importance in native and invasive carnivores of Hungary. Curr Res Parasitol Vector Borne Dis. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42057917/

[18] Gyarteng Mensah SS, Larbi JA, Streit A. Molecular taxonomic characterisation of Ancylostoma spp. and Strongyloides spp. in three protected areas in Ghana. Front Parasitol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42038204/

[19] Rajpoot P, Singh M, Shakya M, et al. Percent positivity and risk analysis of zoonotic intestinal parasites (helminths) in dogs population- a participatory epidemiological study. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Reports. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41819956/

[20] Teixeira R, Lozano J, Flor I, et al. Gastrointestinal and cardiopulmonary parasites in canines and felines of the Azores Islands - Portugal. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Reports. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41741044/

[21] Schlachet A, Peters L, Oberli A, et al. Pleural effusion associated with Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection in a splenectomised dog. Parasitol Int. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42086106/

[22] Nosková E, Ilík V, Niatou FSS, et al. Strongyloides Genetic Diversity among Humans, Dogs, and Nonhuman Primates, Central African Republic, 2016-2022. Emerg Infect Dis. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41863779/

[23] Akil M, Karakus M, Erkinay S, et al. First Molecular Detection of Echinococcus granulosus Sensu Stricto in Dogs from Istanbul's Anatolian Side: A Multi-methodological Approach. Acta Parasitol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42068427/

[24] Alvites MIH, Alvites OEH, Paredes WMQ, et al. Molecular detection of Echinococcus granulosus and associated risk factors in domestic dogs from a high-altitude endemic region of the Peruvian Andes. Vet World. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42046679/

[25] Zhang X, Li Z, Fu Y, et al. Assessment of environmental contamination with Echinococcus spp. through DNA detection in free-roaming canid feces and soil in human echinococcosis hotspots from the Three-River-Source Region of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China. Parasit Vectors. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41872962/

[26] Hentati Y, Reese E, Curran CC, et al. Detection of Echinococcus multilocularis in coyotes in Washington State, USA highlights need for increased wildlife surveillance. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41875214/

[27] Abdelhamid M, Thabit H, Elmaleck BSA, et al. First molecular identification of Spirometra erinaceieuropaei, Ligula intestinalis, and Taenia hydatigena infecting wildlife canine and avian hosts from the Astrakhan Region, Russia. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Reports. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41819945/

[28] Miller LR, Harley SK, Pollock IL, et al. Proliferative sparganosis caused by Spirometra sp. 3 in a dog. J Vet Diagn Invest. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42015729/

[29] Gomes APN, Maldonado A Jr, Olifiers N, et al. New morphological features and phylogenetic

[30] Buńkowska-Gawlik K, Hildebrand J, Popiołek M, et al. Faecal DNA detection and molecular identification of nematodes of veterinary relevance in invasive raccoons and raccoon dogs in Central Europe. Vet Parasitol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41762534/

[31] Islam S, Hasan R, Islam S, et al. Assessment of Pet Owners' Knowledge on Parasitic Infection in Sylhet City Corporation, Bangladesh. J Parasitol Res. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41993908/

[32] Huggins LG, Young ND, Zendejas-Heredia PA, et al. Nanopore long-read metabarcoding for comprehensive characterisation of parasitic nematodes in humans and animals: a development and diagnostic validation study. Lancet Microbe. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42140213/