Toxoplasmosis in Cats: Zoonotic Risk and Clinical Management

Introduction

Toxoplasmosis is a globally distributed zoonotic disease caused by the obligate intracellular apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Felids, including domestic cats (Felis catus), serve as the definitive hosts in which sexual reproduction occurs, leading to the excretion of environmentally resistant oocysts [1, 2]. The parasite infects a wide range of warm-blooded intermediate hosts, and infection in cats is typically subclinical but can cause severe disease in immunocompromised individuals and neonates [3, 4]. The zoonotic potential of T. gondii is primarily mediated through the ingestion of sporulated oocysts from contaminated environments or tissue cysts in undercooked meat [5]. This article provides a detailed review of the biological, epidemiological, diagnostic, and clinical aspects of toxoplasmosis in cats, with emphasis on the zoonotic risk posed by oocyst shedding (frequently referred to as toxoplasmosis in cat poop) and the neurological consequences of infection (termed cat toxoplasmosis brain).

Etiology and Life Cycle

Toxoplasma gondii exists in three infectious stages: tachyzoites (rapidly dividing), bradyzoites (slowly dividing, contained within tissue cysts), and sporozoites (within oocysts) [6, 7]. The sexual cycle occurs exclusively in feline enterocytes. After ingestion of tissue cysts containing bradyzoites (e.g., from rodents or raw meat), the parasites invade intestinal epithelial cells and undergo multiple rounds of asexual proliferation (schizogony) followed by gametogony and oocyst formation [8, 9]. Unsporulated oocysts are shed in feces, and sporulation occurs in the environment within 1–5 days, rendering them infectious [9, 10].

The entero-epithelial cycle in cats is associated with significant changes in the gut microbiota. Multi-omics analyses have revealed that oocyst development and excretion manipulate the composition of the feline intestinal microbiome, with alterations in Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes levels correlating with shedding intensity [11, 9]. Additionally, dynamic regulation of microRNAs in the small intestine during infection has been documented, suggesting host microRNA involvement in parasite replication and immune modulation [8].

Epidemiology and Seroprevalence

The seroprevalence of T. gondii in domestic and stray cats varies widely by geographic region, management practices, and age. In a study from Hong Kong, seroprevalence in privately owned cats was 12.4% and in community cats 18.7%, with higher rates associated with raw food diets and outdoor access [2]. A survey in Jordan reported a seroprevalence of 18.2% using commercial ELISA kits, with molecular detection of T. gondii DNA in feces via PCR reaching 9.7% [12]. In urban Kazakhstan, seroprevalence in client-owned cats was 15.1% [13]. A Brazilian study in urban informal settlements detected anti-T. gondii antibodies in 32.4% of cats, with risk factors including free-roaming behavior and rodent presence [14]. Spatial analysis in northwestern São Paulo demonstrated clustering of seropositive cats in areas with high stray density [15].

The role of wild felids and environmental contamination is also relevant. In the Valdivian temperate rainforest of Chile, landscape variables such as forest fragmentation were associated with T. gondii exposure in domestic cats and American mink, indicating sylvatic transmission cycles [16]. A study from the Pribilof Islands, Alaska, identified T. gondii antibodies in domestic cats and sympatric northern fur seals, suggesting coastal contamination from cat feces [17].

Oocyst Shedding and Fecal Transmission

The term toxoplasmosis in cat poop refers to the excretion of oocysts, which constitutes the primary source of environmental contamination. Oocyst shedding occurs for a limited period (1–3 weeks) after primary infection, but reinfection can provoke re-shedding [18]. Detection of oocysts in feces is challenging due to intermittent shedding and morphological similarities with Hammondia hammondi. Molecular differentiation using PCR and genotyping allows species-level discrimination [19, 18]. In a study from Bangkok, T. gondii DNA was detected in 4.8% of stray cat fecal samples [19]. In Poland, genotyping of T. gondii from cat feces revealed a predominance of type II and type III strains, and co-infections with H. hammondi were noted [18].

Novel diagnostic approaches for oocyst detection include antisense PCR assays, which target the 529 bp repeat element and show improved sensitivity over conventional PCR [20]. Additionally, an ELISA method based on sporozoite-specific antigens has been developed to differentiate oocyst-induced infection from tissue cyst-induced infection, providing a tool for tracking fecal contamination sources [21, 10].

Zoonotic Risk

The zoonotic potential of T. gondii from cats is mediated through accidental ingestion of sporulated oocysts. Immunocompromised persons and pregnant seronegative women are at highest risk [5]. Veterinary professionals are a sentinel population; seroprevalence studies in Mexico found that 38.9% of veterinary personnel had anti-T. gondii antibodies, with risk factors including inconsistent glove use during litter box cleaning [22, 23]. The evolutionary phenomenon known as "fatal feline attraction" – in which T. gondii infection in rodents reduces fear of cat urine and increases predation risk – underscores the adaptive advantage of the parasite's life cycle [7].

While the primary zoonotic risk arises from oocyst contamination, there is also interest in the potential neurological effects of chronic infection in humans (often searched as cat toxoplasmosis brain). Although the present review focuses on cats, it is relevant that T. gondii can modulate host behavior in intermediate hosts such as rodents, and similar effects have been hypothesized in humans, though evidence remains correlational [7]. In cats themselves, neurotropism can lead to meningoencephalitis, as documented in a shelter cat with presumed feline infectious peritonitis [4] and in a fatal disseminated case from Spain [24].

Clinical Signs and Pathology

Most cats are asymptomatic, but clinical disease can manifest as generalized toxoplasmosis (pneumonitis, hepatitis, pancreatitis) or localized (ocular, neuromuscular). The most severe presentations occur in immunosuppressed animals, including those co-infected with feline leukemia virus (FeLV). A case of fatal disseminated toxoplasmosis in a FeLV-C infected cat was associated with a mouse-virulent recombinant type I/III strain, highlighting the interplay between immunosuppression and parasite virulence [3]. Neurological toxoplasmosis (i.e., cat toxoplasmosis brain) presents with ataxia, tremors, seizures, and behavioral changes. Histopathologic examination reveals tachyzoites and tissue cysts with associated gliosis and necrosis [4, 24].

Reproductive tissues can also harbor T. gondii, suggesting potential vertical transmission; PCR positivity was detected in uterine and ovarian tissues of cats undergoing neutering [25]. Infection alters systemic metabolism and gut microbiota, with metabolomic profiling indicating disruptions in amino acid and lipid metabolism that may contribute to clinical signs [11].

Diagnostics

Accurate diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in cats requires integration of serological, molecular, and histopathological methods. Comprehensive diagnostic approaches have been systematically reviewed, bridging traditional techniques (Sabin-Feldman dye test, indirect immunofluorescence, modified agglutination test) with emerging technologies (recombinant antigen-based ELISA, colloidal gold immunochromatographic strips, antisense PCR) [6].

A particularly promising marker is the microneme protein MIC17A, which is expressed both in entero-epithelial stages and in chronic tissue cysts, enabling detection of active and latent infections [27]. Circulating fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase (ALD) has been validated as a target for sandwich ELISA to detect active infection in cats [28]. Field-validated colloidal gold immunochromatographic strips utilizing SAG1 (surface antigen 1) or chimeric antigens allow rapid, point-of-care serological testing in multiple host species [1, 26].

Molecular diagnostics have advanced with the development of antisense PCR, which targets the 529 bp repeat element and achieves detection limits as low as 1 fg of T. gondii DNA [20]. For genotyping, PCR-RFLP and sequencing of polymorphic markers (e.g., SAG2, GRA6) are used to differentiate strains and discriminate T. gondii from H. hammondi [18].

A diagnostic decision tree for managing suspected toxoplasmosis in cats is presented below.

flowchart TD
    A[Cat with clinical signs or known exposure], > B{Serological screening}
    B, >|Negative| C[Low likelihood of active toxoplasmosis consider other differentials]
    B, >|Positive| D{IgM/IgG pattern}
    D, >|IgM+ / IgG -| E[Acute infection likely confirm with PCR or repeat serology in 2-3 weeks]
    D, >|IgM+ / IgG+| F[Recent or reactivated infection fecal PCR and clinical staging]
    D, >|IgM - / IgG+| G[Chronic latent infection low risk of shedding unless immunosuppressed]
    E, > H[Perform fecal PCR and initiate treatment if clinical disease]
    F, > H
    H, > I{Diagnosis confirmed?}
    I, >|Yes| J[Institute antiprotozoal therapy monitor shedding]
    I, >|No| K[Consider non-*Toxoplasma* causes]
    G, > L[No treatment indicated unless immunocompromised or ocular signs]

Treatment

The primary antiprotozoal agents for feline toxoplasmosis include clindamycin (10–12 mg/kg orally every 12 hours for 4 weeks) and trimethoprim-sulfonamide combinations. Clindamycin is considered the drug of choice for active ocular and neurological disease, though clinical response can be variable [6]. Supportive care, including fluid therapy and nutritional support, is essential in severe cases.

Drug resistance is emerging in some T. gondii strains, prompting investigation into alternative therapies such as atovaquone, azithromycin, and decoquinate. However, controlled clinical trials in cats are limited [29]. Gene-edited live-attenuated vaccines have shown promise in reducing oocyst shedding, and these may reduce the need for therapeutic interventions in the future [30, 29].

Control and Prevention

Preventing environmental contamination with toxoplasmosis in cat poop is the cornerstone of zoonotic risk reduction. Practical measures include daily litter box cleaning (before oocysts sporulate), proper disposal of feces, and avoiding feeding cats raw or undercooked meat [5, 6]. For immunocompromised owners, the use of gloves and hand hygiene is recommended; pregnant seronegative women should delegate litter box cleaning to others [5, 7].

Outdoor access increases exposure to infected prey and soil contaminated with oocysts. Stray cat population management and public education on responsible pet ownership are key components of control [15, 13]. Vaccination of cats with live-attenuated or recombinant vaccines (e.g., GRA12, ROP18 gene vectors) can reduce oocyst shedding, thereby decreasing environmental contamination and zoonotic transmission [31, 32]. The PruΔpp2a-c live-attenuated mutant has demonstrated strong immunogenicity and protective efficacy in both mice and cats, eliciting humoral and cell-mediated immunity and significantly reducing oocyst output [29].

Vaccine Development

Recent advances in vaccine technology for feline toxoplasmosis have focused on gene-edited live-attenuated vaccines, DNA vaccines, and recombinant protein vaccines. A comprehensive review of these strategies highlighted the potential of strains lacking key virulence factors (e.g., Δpp2a-c, Δrop18) to induce protective immunity without causing disease [30]. A DNA vaccine encoding a partial ROP18 gene reduced oocyst shedding in vaccinated cats after challenge [32]. The recombinant GRA12 vaccine administered subcutaneously to cats elicited robust IgG responses and diminished the duration and quantity of oocyst excretion [31]. Additionally, the MIC17A antigen, which is conserved across life stages, has been proposed as a vaccine candidate [27].

Conclusion

Toxoplasmosis in cats remains a significant zoonotic concern due to the ability of T. gondii to survive in the environment as oocysts. The clinical management of infected cats requires sophisticated diagnostic algorithms that integrate serology, molecular detection, and clinical assessment. Advances in point-of-care diagnostics, such as colloidal gold immunochromatographic strips and antisense PCR, have improved the accuracy of detection. Novel therapeutic and prophylactic strategies, particularly gene-edited live-attenuated vaccines, promise to reduce oocyst shedding and thereby lower the risk of human infection. Understanding the parasite's life cycle, epidemiological patterns, and host interactions is essential for veterinary practitioners to provide evidence-based care and counsel clients on zoonotic risk mitigation.

References

[1] Mu X, Chen C, Pu X, et al. Development and field validation of a double-antigen sandwich colloidal gold immunochromatographic strip for detection of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in multiple host species. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42253330/

[2] Elsohaby I, Zubair M, Baqar Z, et al. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and associated demographic factors in privately-owned dogs, cats, and community cats in Hong Kong. BMC Vet Res. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42135800/

[3] Fonseca J, Almeida P, Campos S, et al. Identification of a mouse-virulent recombinant type I/III Toxoplasma gondii strain in liver cytology of an immunosuppressed cat infected with FeLV-C subgroup. Vet Res Commun. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41108469/

[4] Abdu A, Henry ME, André NM, et al. Toxoplasmal meningoencephalitis in a 14 week-old shelter cat with presumed feline infectious peritonitis. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Reports. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39855861/

[5] Gharbi M, Yera H, Dupouy-Camet J. [The cat, the women and the toxoplasma: What advice should be given to a pregnant woman who is seronegative for toxoplasmosis and owns a cat?]. Gynecol Obstet Fertil Senol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41628830/

[6] Zhao D, Liao Y, Liu H, et al. Comprehensive diagnostic approaches to feline toxoplasmosis: Bridging traditional methods and emerging technologies. Virulence. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40974007/

[7] Webster JP. Who makes the decisions? Uncovering the evolutionary implications and clinical applications of Toxoplasma gondii's fatal feline attraction. Folia Parasitol. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40458021/

[8] Zhai B, Bao B, Xie SC, et al. Dynamic landscape of microRNA expression in the feline small intestine during Toxoplasma gondii infection. Parasit Vectors. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41965856/

[9] Zhao GH, Zhou BB, Cao ZH, et al. The development and excretion of Toxoplasma gondii oocyst manipulate the gut microbiota in its definitive host. Parasit Vectors. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40635073/

[10] Scott J, Morris A, Hawley J, et al. Evaluating the significance of *Toxoplasma gond

[11] Zhao JX, Wang XY, Zhang X, et al. Toxoplasma gondii alters gut microbiota and systemic metabolism in cats: A multi-omics approach. Vet J. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41015376/

[12] Alkhatatbeh SK, Lafi SQ, Hammad HB, et al. The first seroprevalence and molecular detection of toxoplasmosis infecting cats in Jordan with associated risk factors. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Reports. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41741047/

[13] Lider LA, Kiyan V, Mannapova NE, et al. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in urban client-owned cats in Kazakhstan. Vet Res Commun. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40875169/

[14] Bazan L, Argibay HD, Borges-Silva W, et al. Seroprevalence and risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection in wild, domestic and companion animals in urban informal settlements from Salvador, Brazil. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41401226/

[15] Murata FHA, Barboza JP, Tasso FF, et al. Prevalence and spatial distribution of Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic and stray cats (Felis catus) in Northwestern São Paulo, Brazil. Spat Spatiotemporal Epidemiol. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40935507/

[16] Calvo-Mac C, Delgado-Parada N, Muñoz-Zanzi C, et al. Landscape variables associated with Toxoplasma gondii exposure in American mink (Neogale vison) and domestic cats (Felis catus) in the Valdivian Temperate Rainforest, Chile. J Wildl Dis. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40374172/

[17] Dawant T, Gerhold R, Scott D, et al. Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic cats and northern fur seals of the Pribilof Islands, Alaska. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40584261/

[18] Jańczak D, Stryjek R, Maj AK, et al. PCR detection, genotyping, and differentiation of Toxoplasma gondii from Hammondia hammondi excreted in the feces of cats in Poland between 2020 and 2024. Pathogens. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40430763/

[19] Kengradomkij C, Chimnoi W, Kamyingkird K, et al. PCR detection of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in fecal samples from stray cats in Bangkok Metropolitan, Thailand. Food Waterborne Parasitol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42094705/

[20] Li YY, Bai SY, Yu HQ, et al. Development and evaluation of an antisense PCR assay for Toxoplasma gondii detection in domestic cats. Vet Parasitol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41724116/

[21] He M, Zhang B, Han S, et al. Development and optimization of an ELISA method to detect Toxoplasma gondii oocyst infection in cats. Parasitol Res. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40619535/

[22] de Velasco-Reyes I, Torres-García SE, Hernández-Rangel JJ, et al. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in veterinary medicine professionals and students in Aguascalientes, Mexico. Epidemiologia (Basel). 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42201205/

[23] Gamboa-Prieto J, Sánchez-Otero MG, Sánchez-Montes S, et al. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies among small-animal veterinary personnel in Veracruz, Mexico. J Parasitol. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40043747/

[24] Real L, Barneto A, Kortabarria N, et al. Fatal disseminated Toxoplasma gondii infection in a cat from Madrid, Spain. JFMS Open Rep. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39764240/

[25] Murata FHA, Barboza JP, de Souza CAG, et al. Investigation of Toxoplasma gondii in reproductive tissues of companion animals from a municipal neutering program. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Reports. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41651631/

[26] Chen XX, Sun H, Liang Y, et al. Development of a SAG1-based colloidal gold immunochromatographic strip for rapid serological detection of swine Toxoplasma gondii. Parasit Vectors. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42169035/

[27] Günay-Esiyok Ö, Koçkaya ES, Yılmaz R, et al. The potential of MIC17A both as an entero-epithelial and chronic stage marker for detection of feline toxoplasmosis. Curr Microbiol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41874672/

[28] Gong JZ, Fan YM, Wu YP, et al. Establishment and application of a sandwich ELISA method for measuring Toxoplasma gondii circulating fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase (ALD) protein in cats. Vet Parasitol. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39813886/

[29] Xie SC, Lv YH, Wang M, et al. Live-attenuated Toxoplasma gondii PruΔpp2a-c mutant elicits protective immunity against toxoplasmosis in mice and cats. Int J Parasitol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40783178/

[30] Sang X, Zhang H, Zhang Y, et al. Gene-edited live-attenuated vaccines against Toxoplasma gondii: recent advances and future frontiers. Parasit Vectors. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42252477/

[31] Yang J, Nie L, Song Y, et al. Immunogenicity and protective efficacy of a recombinant Toxoplasma gondii GRA12 vaccine in domestic cats. Vaccines (Basel). 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40872935/

[32] Minutti AF, Sasse JP, Dos Santos Silva AC, et al. Evaluation of a DNA vector plasmid encoding a partial rop18 gene from Toxoplasma gondii in domestic cats as a vaccine candidate. Vaccine. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40054140/

[33] Spada E, Tattarletti G, Proverbio D, et al. The AB blood group system phenotype does not play a role in Toxoplasma gondii infection in cats. Pathogens. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41471183/

[34] Schanz ML, Zhao F, Zadeii KE, et al. The cat's out of the bag: Toxoplasma gondii provides further insight into myeloid-mediated host defense. Immunohorizons. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40854593/

[35] Ríos-Úsuga C, Rendón-Ramos LM, Jaramillo-Delgado IL, et al. Disclosing coinfections: The interaction between Toxoplasma gondii and hemotropic agents in Colombian dogs and cats. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40712328/