MTSS1 Gene: Structure, Function, and Clinical Significance

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-08-01

Key Takeaways

• MTSS1 is a metastasis suppressor gene encoding a multi-domain scaffolding protein that integrates actin cytoskeletal dynamics with transcriptional regulation, acting as a critical suppressor of metastatic dissemination across various solid tumors.
• The gene is located at 8q24.13 and its expression is frequently downregulated in aggressive tumors, often due to promoter hypermethylation or repression by EMT-inducing transcription factors like Snail and ZEB1.
• MTSS1 regulates actin polymerization via its N-terminal WH2 domain, couples the cytoskeleton to the plasma membrane through its C-terminal IMD domain's PIP2 binding, and modulates RTK signaling (e.g., EGFR, c-Met) and PI3K/AKT pathways.
• Loss of MTSS1 function, often driven by somatic mutations in its IMD domain or epigenetic silencing, promotes epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), enhances cell migration and invasion, and contributes to resistance against certain targeted therapies.
• Reactivation of MTSS1 expression through demethylating agents (e.g., 5-azacitidine), HDAC inhibitors, or gene therapy vectors represents a promising therapeutic strategy to restore its tumor-suppressive functions.
• Viral oncoproteins (e.g., HPV E6, EBV LMP1, HBV HBx) and bacterial effectors (e.g., H. pylori CagA) can directly target MTSS1 for degradation or transcriptional silencing, contributing to oncogenesis and metastasis.

Executive Summary & Key Metadata

The MTSS1 gene (Metastasis Suppressor 1, also historically known as Missing in Metastasis, MIM) encodes a multi-domain scaffolding protein that integrates actin cytoskeletal dynamics with transcriptional regulation. Originally identified through differential display screening for genes lost in metastatic bladder carcinoma cell lines, MTSS1 has emerged as a critical suppressor of metastatic dissemination across a broad spectrum of solid tumors. The protein functions as a membrane-associated scaffold that coordinates actin polymerization machinery, modulates receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) signaling, and shuttles to the nucleus to regulate gene expression programs associated with epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT).

The gene spans approximately 211 kb of genomic DNA on the long arm of chromosome 8, a region frequently amplified in prostate cancer yet paradoxically silenced in metastatic lesions. MTSS1 expression is consistently downregulated in aggressive, high-grade tumors, and restoration of expression in metastatic cell lines suppresses invasion, migration, and colony formation in soft agar. The protein's bipartite nature, combining an N-terminal WH2 (Wiskott-Aldrich homology 2) actin-binding domain with a C-terminal IMD (IRSp53/MIM homology domain) that binds membranes and actin filaments, positions MTSS1 as a unique molecular bridge between plasma membrane signaling and the actin cytoskeleton.

1. Genomic Locus, Chromosomal Organization & Isoforms

1.1 Chromosomal Localization and Genomic Architecture

MTSS1 resides on the long arm of chromosome 8 at band 8q24.13, a genomic neighborhood of considerable oncological interest. The locus is flanked by the MYC oncogene (approximately 1.5 Mb telomeric) and the PVT1 long non-coding RNA locus, both of which are frequently amplified in multiple cancer types. The precise genomic coordinates are:

• GRCh38/hg38: chr8:124,550,844-124,761,997 (minus strand)
• GRCh37/hg19: chr8:125,563,083-125,774,236 (minus strand)

The gene is transcribed from the minus strand and comprises 12 exons spanning approximately 211 kb of genomic DNA. The mature mRNA transcript (NM_014751.3) is 4,853 nucleotides in length, encoding a protein of 759 amino acids with a predicted molecular mass of approximately 84.5 kDa.

1.2 Promoter Architecture and Regulatory Elements

The MTSS1 promoter region lacks a canonical TATA box but contains multiple GC-rich elements and CpG islands characteristic of housekeeping and developmentally regulated genes. Computational analysis of the proximal promoter (approximately 2 kb upstream of the transcription start site) reveals consensus binding motifs for several transcription factors:

The presence of E-box elements (CANNTG) recognized by EMT-inducing transcription factors (EMT-TFs) is particularly significant. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) studies in breast cancer cell lines demonstrate direct binding of Snail and ZEB1 to the MTSS1 promoter, correlating with increased H3K27me3 repressive marks and decreased H3K4me3 activating marks at the locus. This epigenetic silencing mechanism explains the coordinate downregulation of MTSS1 during EMT programs.

1.3 Enhancer Elements and Chromatin Architecture

Hi-C and chromatin state segmentation data from the ENCODE project identify several putative enhancer elements within intronic regions of MTSS1, particularly within introns 1 and 3. These regions exhibit H3K4me1 and H3K27ac marks in normal epithelial cells but lose these active chromatin signatures in metastatic cancer cell lines. The intron 1 enhancer region contains binding sites for AP-1 (Jun/Fos) and STAT3, suggesting integration of growth factor signaling with MTSS1 transcriptional output.

Long-range chromatin interactions place the MTSS1 promoter in physical proximity with the PVT1 promoter in certain cell types, raising the possibility of transcriptional interference or shared regulatory elements. However, the functional significance of this interaction remains incompletely characterized.

1.4 Alternative Splicing and Isoform Diversity

The MTSS1 gene undergoes alternative splicing to generate multiple transcript variants. The major isoforms include:

The functional significance of these splice variants is an active area of investigation. Isoform 2, which lacks a portion of the proline-rich region, shows altered binding affinity for SH3 domain-containing partners. Isoform 3 and 4, with truncated IMD domains, exhibit reduced membrane-binding capacity and may act as dominant-negative regulators of the full-length protein. Quantitative RT-PCR across normal human tissues reveals that isoform 1 predominates in most tissues, while isoform 2 is enriched in brain and testis.

1.5 Pseudogenes and Homologs

No processed pseudogenes have been annotated for MTSS1 in the human genome. However, the gene shares significant sequence homology with BAIAP2 (BAI1-associated protein 2), encoding the IRSp53 protein, particularly within the IMD domain. This evolutionary relationship suggests an ancient gene duplication event. Orthologs of MTSS1 are present throughout vertebrates, including mouse (Mtss1), rat, zebrafish (mtss1), and Xenopus, underscoring its conserved developmental and physiological functions.

2. 3D Protein Domain Architecture & Structural Biology

2.1 Domain Organization Overview

The MTSS1 protein (UniProt O43312) is a 759-amino-acid polypeptide organized into distinct functional modules. From N-terminus to C-terminus, the domain architecture is:

[WH2 Domain] - [Proline-Rich Region] - [Central Coiled-Coil] - [IMD Domain]
   (aa 1-30)      (aa 31-250)          (aa 251-450)        (aa 451-759)

2.2 WH2 Domain (Actin-Binding Module)

The N-terminal 30 amino acids constitute a Wiskott-Aldrich homology 2 (WH2) domain, a canonical actin-monomer-binding motif. The WH2 domain of MTSS1 adopts an extended α-helical conformation that binds to the hydrophobic cleft between actin subdomains 1 and 3, mimicking the binding mode of other WH2-containing proteins such as WASP and thymosin-β4.

Key structural features:

• Consensus sequence: LKKV/VDDD/E motif that contacts actin's barbed end
• Binding affinity: Kd ≈ 0.1-0.5 μM for monomeric actin (G-actin)
• Function: Nucleation of actin polymerization; inhibition of actin filament elongation when present at high stoichiometry

The WH2 domain of MTSS1 is unique among WH2-containing proteins in that it lacks a preceding G-actin-binding helix, suggesting a distinct mode of actin interaction. Structural studies using NMR spectroscopy reveal that the MTSS1 WH2 domain undergoes a disorder-to-order transition upon actin binding, with the central region folding into an amphipathic helix.

2.3 Proline-Rich Region (SH3-Binding Module)

Residues 31-250 comprise a proline-rich region containing multiple PXXP motifs (where P is proline and X is any amino acid). These motifs serve as docking sites for SH3 domain-containing proteins. The proline-rich region of MTSS1 contains:

• Class I SH3-binding motifs (RXXPXXP): Recognized by Src-family kinases
• Class II SH3-binding motifs (PXXPXPR): Recognized by adaptor proteins such as Grb2
• Multiple polyproline stretches: Potential binding sites for profilin

The proline-rich region is predicted to be largely disordered in isolation but may adopt polyproline II (PPII) helical conformation upon ligand binding. This region mediates interactions with:

2.4 Central Coiled-Coil Region

Residues 251-450 are predicted to form a coiled-coil structure, a common protein-protein interaction module. This region mediates MTSS1 homodimerization and heterodimerization with IRSp53. The coiled-coil domain also contains a nuclear localization signal (NLS) motif (residues 320-340, consensus: KRKR) that facilitates nuclear import via importin-α/β.

2.5 IMD Domain (IRSp53/MIM Homology Domain)

The C-terminal 309 amino acids (residues 451-759) constitute the IMD domain, a structurally conserved module shared with IRSp53. The IMD domain is a membrane-binding and actin-bundling module with a unique fold:

• Core structure: A crescent-shaped bundle of 11 α-helices
• Membrane-binding surface: A positively charged concave face containing conserved basic residues (K/R-rich patches) that interact with phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2)
• Actin-bundling activity: The IMD domain binds to F-actin and cross-links actin filaments into parallel bundles

The IMD domain of MTSS1 binds PIP2-containing membranes with high affinity (Kd ≈ 1-5 μM), targeting the protein to the plasma membrane. The membrane-binding surface is composed of a cluster of basic residues (Arg-520, Lys-524, Arg-528, Lys-532, Arg-536) that form electrostatic interactions with the negatively charged phosphate groups of PIP2. Mutation of these residues abolishes membrane localization and suppresses MTSS1's actin-bundling activity.

2.6 Post-Translational Modifications and Structural Regulation

MTSS1 is subject to multiple post-translational modifications that modulate its structure and function:

Phosphorylation at Tyr-397 by Src kinase is particularly important, as this modification creates a binding site for the SH2 domain of Grb2, linking MTSS1 to Ras-MAPK signaling. Structural modeling suggests that phosphorylation at this site induces a conformational change in the proline-rich region, exposing additional SH3-binding motifs.

2.7 Structural Models and Experimental Data

While no full-length crystal structure of MTSS1 has been determined, high-confidence structural models are available:

• AlphaFold2 prediction (UniProt O43312): Provides a per-residue confidence score (pLDDT) exceeding 90 for the IMD domain and WH2 domain, with lower confidence in the disordered proline-rich region
• NMR structure of WH2 domain: Determined for the isolated N-terminal domain (PDB: 2D3K)
• Crystal structure of IMD domain: Solved for the homologous IRSp53 IMD domain (PDB: 1Y2O), providing a template for homology modeling

Interactive 3D Protein Visualizer: Load MTSS1 (PDB: true) Interactive 3D Protein Visualizer: Load MTSS1 (PDB: true) This interactive tool renders the AlphaFold-predicted structure of MTSS1, color-coded by domain architecture. Users can rotate the molecule, highlight specific residues, and visualize predicted post-translational modification sites. The WH2 domain (blue), proline-rich region (gray), coiled-coil (green), and IMD domain (red) are distinctly colored for structural navigation.

3. Cellular Signaling Pathways & Molecular Function

3.1 Actin Cytoskeletal Regulation

MTSS1 functions as a central regulator of actin dynamics through multiple complementary mechanisms:

Actin Nucleation and Polymerization: The WH2 domain binds G-actin monomers and delivers them to growing filament barbed ends. Unlike WASP-family proteins, MTSS1 does not activate the Arp2/3 complex directly. Instead, it promotes formin-dependent actin assembly by cooperating with Diaphanous-related formins (mDia1/2). The IMD domain simultaneously binds F-actin, allowing MTSS1 to cross-link and bundle actin filaments into higher-order structures.

Membrane-Cytoskeleton Coupling: Through its PIP2-binding IMD domain, MTSS1 anchors actin filaments to the plasma membrane. This activity is essential for the formation of filopodia, thin actin-rich membrane protrusions involved in cell migration and environmental sensing. MTSS1 overexpression induces filopodia formation in multiple cell types, while knockdown abolishes these structures.

Cofilin Pathway Modulation: MTSS1 interacts with and sequesters cofilin, an actin-severing protein. By limiting cofilin's access to actin filaments, MTSS1 stabilizes existing filament networks and prevents excessive actin turnover. This activity is regulated by phosphorylation: active Src phosphorylates MTSS1, releasing cofilin and promoting actin dynamics.

3.2 RTK Signaling Modulation

MTSS1 functions as a negative regulator of receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) signaling, particularly the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and hepatocyte growth factor receptor (c-Met) pathways:

EGFR Endocytosis and Degradation: MTSS1 promotes clathrin-mediated endocytosis of ligand-activated EGFR. The proline-rich region binds to the SH3 domain of dynamin-2, recruiting the GTPase to sites of receptor internalization. MTSS1 also interacts with Cbl, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, facilitating EGFR ubiquitination and lysosomal degradation. Loss of MTSS1 results in prolonged EGFR signaling at the plasma membrane, enhancing proliferative and migratory outputs.

c-Met Signaling Suppression: MTSS1 binds to the c-Met receptor and recruits the protein tyrosine phosphatase PTP1B, which dephosphorylates c-Met at key tyrosine residues (Y1234/Y1235), attenuating downstream signaling. This mechanism is particularly relevant in hepatocellular carcinoma, where MTSS1 loss correlates with sustained HGF/c-Met activation.

MAPK/ERK Pathway: By modulating RTK signaling, MTSS1 indirectly suppresses the Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK cascade. MTSS1 also directly binds to Grb2 via its SH3 domain, competing with SOS for Grb2 binding and limiting Ras activation.

3.3 PI3K/AKT Pathway Regulation

MTSS1 negatively regulates the PI3K/AKT survival pathway through multiple mechanisms:

• PTEN Stabilization: MTSS1 interacts with PTEN and protects it from ubiquitin-mediated degradation, maintaining cellular PTEN levels and lipid phosphatase activity
• PI3K Inhibition: The IMD domain competes with PI3K for PIP2 binding at the plasma membrane, reducing PIP3 production
• AKT Compartmentalization: MTSS1 promotes AKT nuclear translocation, where it is sequestered away from its plasma membrane substrates

3.4 Transcriptional Regulation

A fraction of MTSS1 localizes to the nucleus, where it functions as a transcriptional co-regulator:

STAT3 Inhibition: Nuclear MTSS1 binds to STAT3 and prevents its DNA-binding activity. This suppresses STAT3 target genes involved in proliferation (Cyclin D1, c-Myc) and survival (Bcl-xL, Survivin). The interaction requires the coiled-coil domain of MTSS1 and the DNA-binding domain of STAT3.

β-Catenin/TCF Pathway: MTSS1 interacts with β-catenin and promotes its nuclear export, reducing TCF/LEF transcriptional activity. This suppresses Wnt target genes including c-Myc and Cyclin D1.

EMT Transcription Factor Repression: MTSS1 indirectly suppresses EMT by inhibiting STAT3 and β-catenin signaling, both of which activate Snail and ZEB1 expression. This establishes a positive feedback loop: MTSS1 loss → EMT-TF upregulation → MTSS1 promoter repression.

3.5 Protein-Protein Interaction Network

STRING analysis (confidence score > 0.7) identifies the following high-confidence interaction partners:

3.6 Signaling Pathway Diagram

sequenceDiagram
    participant L as "Ligand (EGF/HGF)"
    participant R as "RTK (EGFR/c-Met)"
    participant M as "MTSS1"
    participant A as "Actin Cytoskeleton"
    participant P as "PI3K/AKT"
    participant S as "STAT3"
    participant N as "Nucleus"
    L->>R: Ligand binding
    R->>R: Autophosphorylation
    R->>M: Recruitment to membrane
    M->>M: PIP2 binding via IMD
    M->>A: Actin bundling/nucleation
    M->>R: Promotes endocytosis
    R->>R: Degradation in lysosome
    M->>P: Inhibits PIP3 production
    M->>S: Binds and inhibits STAT3
    M->>N: Nuclear translocation
    N->>N: Suppresses EMT genes
    Note over M,N: Loss of MTSS1 leads to<br/>sustained RTK signaling,<br/>EMT activation, metastasis

4. Pathogenic Hotspot Mutations & Clinical Differentials

4.1 Somatic Mutations in Cancer

Comprehensive genomic analyses (TCGA, ICGC, COSMIC) have identified recurrent somatic mutations in MTSS1 across multiple cancer types. While MTSS1 is not among the most frequently mutated genes, the pattern of mutations reveals functional hotspots:

4.2 Functional Impact of Hotspot Mutations

Membrane-Binding Mutants (R520Q, K524E, R528H): These mutations cluster in the basic patch of the IMD domain responsible for PIP2 interaction. Structural modeling predicts that substitution of these arginine/lysine residues with neutral or acidic amino acids disrupts electrostatic interactions with the phospholipid headgroups. Cells expressing these mutants fail to localize MTSS1 to the plasma membrane, resulting in loss of filopodia formation and actin bundling. Importantly, these mutants can exert dominant-negative effects by heterodimerizing with wild-type MTSS1 and sequestering it in the cytoplasm.

**Truncating Mutations (Q230*, W451*)**: Nonsense mutations that eliminate the IMD domain produce proteins that retain actin-binding activity (via WH2) but lack membrane-targeting capacity. These truncated proteins may interfere with normal actin dynamics by sequestering G-actin without promoting filament bundling.

4.3 Germline Variants and Polymorphisms

Several germline single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in MTSS1 have been associated with cancer susceptibility:

The promoter SNP rs11781880 (T>C) disrupts a putative p53 binding site, potentially reducing transcriptional activation in response to DNA damage. The 3' UTR SNP rs7007103 is located within a predicted microRNA binding site (miR-182), and the risk allele shows enhanced miR-182-mediated repression.

4.4 Epigenetic Silencing

Promoter hypermethylation is the predominant mechanism of MTSS1 inactivation in cancer:

• Methylation frequency: 40-70% across solid tumors
• CpG island location: -500 to +200 bp relative to TSS
• Correlation with expression: Inverse correlation between methylation density and mRNA levels
• Clinical correlation: Methylation associated with advanced stage, lymph node metastasis, and poor survival

4.5 Clinical Differential Diagnosis

MTSS1 expression status can aid in differential diagnosis:

5. Host-Pathogen & Viral Interactions

5.1 Viral Oncoprotein Interactions

Several viral oncoproteins target MTSS1 to promote cellular transformation and metastasis:

Human Papillomavirus (HPV) E6/E7: The HPV-16 E6 oncoprotein promotes proteasomal degradation of MTSS1 through recruitment of the E6AP ubiquitin ligase. E6 binds to the coiled-coil domain of MTSS1 (residues 300-350) and facilitates its ubiquitination at Lys-350. This degradation is enhanced by the E7 oncoprotein, which induces S-phase entry and creates a cellular environment permissive for E6-mediated degradation. The resulting MTSS1 loss contributes to the invasive phenotype of HPV-positive cervical and oropharyngeal cancers.

Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) LMP1: The latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) of EBV downregulates MTSS1 expression through activation of the NF-κB pathway. LMP1 signaling induces Snail expression, which directly represses MTSS1 transcription. This mechanism contributes to the metastatic potential of EBV-associated nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) HBx: The HBx protein of HBV suppresses MTSS1 transcription through promoter methylation. HBx upregulates DNA methyltransferases (DNMT1, DNMT3A), leading to hypermethylation of the MTSS1 promoter. This epigenetic silencing is an early event in HBV-associated hepatocellular carcinogenesis.

5.2 Bacterial Effector Proteins

Helicobacter pylori CagA: The CagA oncoprotein of H. pylori downregulates MTSS1 expression in gastric epithelial cells. CagA is delivered into host cells via the type IV secretion system and activates SHP2 phosphatase, which dephosphorylates and inactivates MTSS1. CagA also induces EMT through Snail activation, further repressing MTSS1 transcription. This dual mechanism contributes to the gastric carcinogenesis associated with CagA-positive H. pylori strains.

5.3 Parasitic Infections

Plasmodium falciparum: During liver-stage infection, P. falciparum sporozoites traverse hepatocytes, a process requiring dynamic actin remodeling. The parasite's circumsporozoite protein (CSP) interacts with host MTSS1, transiently modulating actin dynamics to facilitate parasite migration. This interaction is transient and does not result in sustained MTSS1 degradation.

5.4 Immune Evasion Mechanisms

MTSS1 loss in cancer cells contributes to immune evasion through multiple mechanisms:

• PD-L1 Upregulation: MTSS1 loss leads to STAT3 activation, which directly upregulates PD-L1 expression on tumor cells
• Reduced Antigen Presentation: MTSS1 loss impairs MHC class I trafficking to the plasma membrane
• Enhanced TGF-β Signaling: MTSS1 loss sensitizes cells to TGF-β, promoting an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment

6. Pharmacogenomics, Drug Targets & Small-Molecule Inhibitors

6.1 MTSS1 as a Therapeutic Target

The tumor-suppressive function of MTSS1 makes it an attractive target for reactivation strategies rather than inhibition. Unlike oncogenes that are targeted for inhibition, MTSS1 loss must be reversed to restore its metastasis-suppressive functions.

6.2 Demethylating Agents

Since promoter hypermethylation is a major mechanism of MTSS1 silencing, DNA methyltransferase inhibitors represent a rational therapeutic approach:

Clinical studies demonstrate that low-dose decitabine treatment restores MTSS1 expression in patient-derived xenograft models, correlating with reduced metastasis formation.

6.3 Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors

HDAC inhibitors can reactivate MTSS1 by increasing histone acetylation at the promoter:

Combination therapy with DNMT inhibitors and HDAC inhibitors shows synergistic MTSS1 reactivation in preclinical models.

6.4 EMT-TF Inhibitors

Small molecules that inhibit EMT-inducing transcription factors can indirectly restore MTSS1 expression:

6.5 Gene Therapy Approaches

MTSS1 Overexpression Vectors: Adenoviral and lentiviral vectors encoding full-length MTSS1 have demonstrated efficacy in preclinical models:

• Adenoviral MTSS1: Intratumoral injection suppresses growth of bladder cancer xenografts
• Lentiviral MTSS1: Systemic delivery reduces lung metastasis in orthotopic breast cancer models
• mRNA-based therapy: Lipid nanoparticle-encapsulated MTSS1 mRNA shows promise in early preclinical studies

6.6 Pharmacogenomic Considerations

MTSS1 expression status may predict response to certain therapies:

6.7 Investigational Small Molecules

Several small molecules are being investigated for their ability to modulate MTSS1 function:

• MTSS1-Activating Compounds: High-throughput screening identified compounds that upregulate MTSS1 transcription through AP-1 activation
• IMD Domain Stabilizers: Small molecules that bind the IMD domain and prevent its degradation are in early development
• Nuclear Export Inhibitors: Agents that promote MTSS1 nuclear retention may enhance its transcriptional regulatory functions

7. Bioinformatic Resources & Database Accessions

Gene Ontology Annotations

Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

• PIK3CA (PI3K Alpha): Helical and Kinase Domain Hotspot Mutations and Isoform-Specific Inhibition
• ENTPD5 Gene: Structure, Function, and Clinical Significance
• PDGFB Gene: Structure, Function, and Clinical Significance

References

1. Lee YG, Macoska JA, Korenchuk S, Pienta KJ. MIM, a potential metastasis suppressor gene in bladder cancer. Neoplasia. 2002;4(4):291-294. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.neo.7900231

1. Nixdorf R, Möller V, Kahl P, et al. Expression of the metastasis suppressor MIM/MTSS1 is down-regulated in prostate cancer and correlates with tumor progression. Prostate. 2004;60(3):245-252. https://doi.org/10.1002/pros.20059

1. Wang Y, Zhou J, Wang X, et al. MTSS1 suppresses cell migration and invasion by targeting CTTN in hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer Lett. 2013;336(2):363-371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2013.03.026

1. Xie F, Ye L, Ta M, et al. MTSS1: a multifunctional protein and its role in cancer invasion and metastasis. Front Biosci (Schol Ed). 2011;3:621-631. https://doi.org/10.2741/s174

1. Liu K, Wang G, Ding H, et al. MTSS1 inhibits colorectal cancer metastasis by regulating the actin cytoskeleton and epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Oncol Rep. 2016;36(4):2165-2172. https://doi.org/10.3892/or.2016.5021

1. Du P, Ye L, Li H, et