Swine Erysipelas: Diagnosis and Control in Modern Production Systems

1. Introduction

Swine erysipelas (SE) remains one of the most economically significant bacterial diseases of pigs worldwide. Caused by the Gram-positive bacterium Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, the disease presents in acute, subacute, and chronic forms, with clinical manifestations ranging from sudden death and septicemia to lameness from vegetative endocarditis and chronic arthritis [1, 2, 3]. The pathogen is ubiquitous, persisting in both the environment and the tonsils and lymphoid tissues of carrier pigs [4, 5]. Outbreaks are often precipitated by stress factors such as sudden temperature changes, high humidity, and poor management practices [1, 6, 7]. In modern intensive production systems, control relies on a combination of vaccination, biosecurity, and judicious antimicrobial use, yet the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains and antigenic variants of E. rhusiopathiae necessitates ongoing vigilance [8, 9, 10]. This article provides a detailed examination of the clinical presentations, diagnostic methods, vaccination strategies, and antimicrobial stewardship principles for swine erysipelas in contemporary swine operations.

2. Etiology and Pathogenesis

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae is a slender, pleomorphic, Gram-positive rod that produces alpha-hemolysis on blood agar [11, 12]. The organism possesses a surface protective antigen (Spa) protein, particularly SpaA, which is the primary immunogen and target for vaccine development [2, 13, 14]. The bacterium expresses a polysaccharide capsule modified with phosphorylcholine, which facilitates adherence to porcine endothelial cells [15, 16]. Pathogenesis involves adhesion to tonsillar epithelium, invasion of the bloodstream, and resistance to phagocytic killing [17]. The pathogen produces neuraminidase, which may contribute to tissue damage [18]. Virulence factors include several surface proteins such as CbpB, GAPDH, and DnaK [19, 20, 21]. Genome sequencing of multiple strains has revealed the presence of pathogenicity islands and acquired antimicrobial resistance genes [22, 23, 24, 25].

The bacterium can survive for months in soil, feces, and on contaminated surfaces, making environmental persistence a key factor in herd reinfection [1, 4]. Meteorological factors, particularly high temperature and precipitation, influence survival and transmission dynamics [6, 26, 7].

3. Clinical Presentations

The disease manifests in three principal forms.

3.1 Acute Septicemic Form

This form is characterized by sudden fever (40.5-42°C), depression, inappetence, and rapid death within 24-48 hours [27, 3]. Cutaneous erythema progressing to the pathognomonic diamond-shaped urticarial plaques (diamond skin disease) may appear on the back, flanks, and abdomen [28, 29]. In pregnant sows, abortion and stillbirths can occur [30]. Acute outbreaks in naïve herds can cause high mortality, especially in growing pigs [31, 32]. The acute form must be differentiated from other septicemic diseases such as African swine fever, classical swine fever, and Streptococcus suis infection [33, 34].

3.2 Subacute Form

Subacute disease presents with milder fever, reduced appetite, and fewer cutaneous lesions. Pigs may recover spontaneously, but chronic sequelae are common [35, 36].

3.3 Chronic Form

Chronic swine erysipelas manifests as non-suppurative polyarthritis (vegetative valvular endocarditis is a hallmark), and occasionally as lymphadenitis [37, 35, 38]. Arthritis leads to lameness and reduced growth performance [39]. Endocarditis often results in congestive heart failure and sudden death in finisher pigs [40, 41]. Chronic carriers are important reservoirs for herd transmission [5].

4. Diagnosis

Accurate diagnosis is essential for implementing timely control measures. A combination of clinical, bacteriological, molecular, and serological methods is recommended.

4.1 Clinical and Postmortem Diagnosis

Clinical suspicion is raised by the presence of diamond-shaped skin lesions, fever, and sudden death in pigs. At necropsy, findings include cutaneous erythema, petechial hemorrhages on serosal surfaces, splenomegaly, and vegetative lesions on heart valves (especially the mitral valve) [27, 11]. Histopathological examination reveals vasculitis, fibrinoid necrosis, and Gram-positive bacilli in affected tissues [42]. An immunohistochemical method employing polyclonal antibodies against E. rhusiopathiae has been validated for formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues, offering high specificity [42].

4.2 Bacteriological Culture

Isolation of E. rhusiopathiae from blood, spleen, liver, kidney, or joint fluid remains the gold standard [11, 12]. Swabs or tissue samples are inoculated onto blood agar or selective media (e.g., Tryptose Phosphate Broth containing Tween 80 and acriflavine) and incubated at 37°C under microaerophilic conditions [43, 12]. Colonies appear as small, alpha-hemolytic, and may be confused with Enterococcus spp. [44]. Confirmatory tests include Gram stain morphology (pleomorphic Gram-positive rods), catalase-negative, and H2S production on triple sugar iron agar [11].

Bacterial culture can be enhanced by using an enrichment broth step before PCR, increasing sensitivity from clinical samples [43].

4.3 Molecular Diagnostics

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays targeting the 16S rRNA gene or the spaA gene are widely used for species confirmation [11, 45, 43]. A multiplex PCR-based assay for rapid serotyping has been developed, enabling differentiation of serovars 1a, 1b, 2, and 5 directly from isolates [46]. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) provides a rapid, simple alternative to PCR for field-level detection [47]. Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) can quantify bacterial load in tissues and oral fluids [48].

Whole-genome sequencing and single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis have been employed for molecular epidemiology, outbreak tracing, and identification of clonal lineages [49, 50, 51]. Such genomic approaches reveal host adaptation and selective pressures from antimicrobial use [25].

4.4 Serological Assays

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) are available for detection of antibodies against E. rhusiopathiae. Recombinant SpaA-based ELISAs (e.g., rSpaA415) offer high sensitivity and specificity for monitoring vaccine responses and herd exposure [52, 53]. Commercial ELISAs are widely used to assess vaccine efficacy and to screen herds [53]. An ELISA for another pathogen (Feline Leukemia Virus) provides a comparative example of antigen capture methodology.

Indirect immunofluorescence techniques have been adapted for serological testing in captive marine mammals, but have also been applied to swine [54].

5. Control in Modern Production Systems

5.1 Vaccination

Vaccination is the cornerstone of swine erysipelas prevention. Both live attenuated and inactivated (killed) vaccines are commercially available [2, 55, 56]. Live vaccines, such as the Koganei 65-0.15 strain (Japan) and VR-2 strain (Russia), provide robust immune protection but carry a small risk of reversion to virulence or residual pathogenicity [13, 57, 37]. Inactivated vaccines, including bacterins and subunit vaccines (e.g., those based on SpaA), are safer but may require adjuvants and multiple doses [2, 58, 56]. A recombinant Bacillus subtilis expressing SpaA and CbpB has shown immunogenicity in mice, representing a potential novel oral vaccine platform [59].

Vaccination protocols typically involve two doses administered intramuscularly to sows before farrowing (to maximize maternal antibody transfer) and to growing pigs at weaning and again 4-6 weeks later [53, 60]. Pre-farrowing vaccination of sows significantly enhances maternally derived antibody titers in piglets and prolongs seropositivity into the post-weaning period [53]. A self-vaccination strategy using an environmental enrichment device that delivers avirulent live vaccine orally has demonstrated comparable antibody responses to hand-vaccination, offering labor-saving potential [61, 62].

Protection is primarily antibody-mediated, but cell-mediated immunity also plays a role [63, 13]. Swine leukocyte antigen (SLA) haplotype influences antibody titers post-vaccination; pigs with the Lr-0.30 haplotype show lower responses than those with Lr-0.13, suggesting genetic factors may impact vaccine efficacy [64].

Vaccine potency testing has evolved towards serological methods to reduce reliance on lethal challenge tests in pigs [65, 66, 67, 68]. Quality control in erysipelas vaccine production includes assessment of specific activity using target or laboratory animals [65, 69].

5.2 Antimicrobial Stewardship

Penicillin is the first-line antimicrobial for treatment and metaphylaxis of swine erysipelas [27, 30]. E. rhusiopathiae is generally susceptible to beta-lactams, macrolides, and tetracyclines [32, 70, 10]. However, increasing resistance to oxytetracycline has been documented in Japan, China, and Poland [71, 72, 10, 73]. Resistance to tylosin and pleuromutilins (e.g., tiamulin) has also emerged [71, 74]. Genes encoding resistance to lincosamides (lsa(E)) and tetracyclines have been identified [22, 74].

To preserve antimicrobial efficacy, treatment should be guided by culture and susceptibility testing whenever possible [8]. Beta-lactam antibiotics (e.g., amoxicillin, ceftiofur) remain highly effective [32, 75]. Concurrent administration of antibiotics with vaccination can modulate the humoral immune response; for example, ceftiofur and tulathromycin may suppress antibody production if given simultaneously with erysipelas vaccine [75]. This interaction underscores the need for careful timing of treatment and immunization.

Antimicrobial resistance in livestock-associated pathogens is a One Health concern [25]. For a broader context, see the article on Antimicrobial Resistance in Livestock-Associated Staphylococcus aureus.

5.3 Biosecurity and Herd Management

Prevention of swine erysipelas introduction relies on strict biosecurity measures: quarantine of incoming animals, regular cleaning and disinfection of facilities, and control of rodents and wild birds that may serve as vectors [4, 76]. Environmental persistence of E. rhusiopathiae means contaminated equipment and feed can act as fomites [1, 9]. Pasture rotation can help reduce soil contamination in outdoor systems [4].

Enhanced passive surveillance (EPS) combining slaughterhouse condemnation data with practitioner reports can provide early warning of outbreaks, as demonstrated in the United States [77]. Slaughterhouse monitoring for erysipelas lesions is a useful epidemiological tool [78, 79, 80]. In endemic regions, annual serological screening is recommended to assess herd immunity and detect subclinical circulation [4, 81].

The role of wild boar as reservoirs has gained attention, particularly in areas with free-range pig production or where wild boar populations overlap with domestic swine [38, 81, 82, 83]. A computational model for African swine fever spread in wild boar populations may offer methodological parallels for SE surveillance: see African Swine Fever: Computational Models for Early Detection and Spread Prediction in Wild Boar Populations.

5.4 Alternative and Supportive Strategies

Probiotics, specifically Bacillus direct-fed microbials (DFMs), have shown in vitro inhibition of E. rhusiopathiae growth, suggesting potential as a biocontrol adjunct [84]. Network pharmacology and molecular docking approaches have been used to identify plant-derived compounds (e.g., from Paeonia seed meal) that may enhance disease resistance, but these are not yet validated in vivo [85].

Meteorological forecasting models can predict outbreak risk based on temperature, humidity, and precipitation, enabling preemptive vaccination or treatment in high-risk periods [1, 6, 7]. The use of early disease detection technologies, such as an integrated intelligent system employing visual, acoustic, and infrared thermal data, may allow earlier identification of clinically affected pigs [86].

6. Diagnostic and Control Decision Framework

flowchart TD
    A[Clinical suspicion: fever, skin lesions, sudden death], > B[Ante-mortem sampling]
    B, > C1[Blood culture / enrichment broth]
    B, > C2[Oral fluid PCR / ELISA]
    B, > C3[Skin biopsy histopathology & IHC]
    C1, > D[Bacterial isolation & Gram stain]
    D, > E[16S rRNA or spaA PCR confirmation]
    E, > F[Serotyping PCR or sequencing]
    F, > G[Antimicrobial susceptibility testing]
    G, > H[Select antimicrobial treatment]
    H, > I[Monitor clinical response]
    I, > J[Recovery or chronic sequela]
    C2, > K[Serological ELISA for herd immunity]
    K, > L[Vaccination program assessment]
    L, > M[Adjust vaccine type & timing]
    A, > N[Postmortem examination]
    N, > O[Tissue PCR & culture]
    O, > P[Confirm diagnosis]
    P, > Q[Initiate metaphylaxis & biosecurity review]
    Q, > R[Enhanced surveillance: slaughter & practitioner data]
    R, > S[Outbreak containment]
    S, > T[Evaluate risk factors: weather, management, introductions]
    T, > U[Update vaccination & biosecurity protocols]

7. Conclusions

Swine erysipelas remains a significant challenge to the global pig industry despite decades of vaccine availability. The bacterium's environmental hardiness, carrier state, and emerging antimicrobial resistance require a multi-faceted control approach. Diagnosis should leverage rapid molecular methods (PCR, LAMP) alongside traditional culture, with serology used for herd-level monitoring. Vaccination programs must be optimized according to herd type, local epidemiology, and SLA genetics, while avoiding interference from concurrent antimicrobial use. Enhanced passive surveillance and epidemiological modeling can provide early outbreak detection. Continued research into novel vaccines (e.g., recombinant subunit, live attenuated with defined deletions) and alternative control measures (e.g., probiotics, intelligent monitoring) will further strengthen prevention efforts. Rigorous antimicrobial stewardship, guided by susceptibility testing, is essential to preserve treatment options for acute cases.

References

[1] Y. Liu, J. Liu, Y. Liu et al., "Mechanism Exploration and Quantitative Analysis of Swine Erysipelas Outbreaks," Acta Veterinaria, 2025. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ba84e9ab555f7bd8a4cf19bd185c0a40d1c0419f

[2] M. Morimoto, A. Kato, K. Nogami et al., "The Swine Erysipelas Vaccine SER-ME Effectively Protects Pigs against Challenge with the Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae M203/I257 SpaA-Type Variant," Veterinary Sciences, 2022. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/321f562f0003dc3367fa6bef133fefb541a672bf

[3] D. Habte, D. Tamir, T. Tilahun, "Swine Erysipelas: Its Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Treatment, Control, Preventive Measures and Comprehensive Review," Journal, 2021. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/40f4a15d67b6944a7b0499b5f2732748a3d9e0e4

[4] M.S. Chumakova, V.F. Goldin, N.V. Stolyarova et al., "Control of welfare and prevention of swine erysipelas," Veterinariya, Zootekhniya i Biotekhnologiya, 2026. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/f74be0c098afda0b7450e8e87c79c042a5fcaa86

[5] R. Connell, E. Langford, "Studies of Swine Erysipelas. V. Presence Of Erysipelothrix Rhusiopathiae in Apparently Healthy Pigs," Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Science, 1953. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/5ac35e5069156eaf382e9980dad4390be1711f38

[6] H. Wang, Y. Xu, M. Ouyang et al., "Potential risk factors of swine erysipelas outbreak in Northeast Mainland China," Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 2020. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/b83f32fc566a6beae5b3c22f0cb6c3e0f322af97

[7] H. Qin, X. Xiu, W. Li et al., "Meteorological Factors and Swine Erysipelas Transmission in Southern China," Journal, 2020. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/7071a7e579dcb550ac2e286c74443d412b1a998e

[8] O. Tarasov, N. Hudz, S. Tereschenko, "The study of the antimicrobial susceptibility of the swine erysipelas causative agent strains and isolates to antibiotics," Journal, 2020. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/666075138b5df5ac17ef269f811395a06229d8c3

[9] J.S. Bender, H. Shen, C. Irwin et al., "Characterization of Erysipelothrix Species Isolates from Clinically Affected Pigs, Environmental Samples, and Vaccine Strains from Six Recent Swine Erysipelas Outbreaks in the United States," Clinical and Vaccine Immunology, 2010. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/cbe52584bf52cbf55683ee35ffa4b75758b5c665

[10] M. Dec, D. Łagowski, T. Nowak et al., "Serotypes, Antibiotic Susceptibility, Genotypic Virulence Profiles and SpaA Variants of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Strains Isolated from Pigs in Poland," Pathogens, 2023. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36986331/

[11] S. Sankar, P. Reshma, N. Sarika et al., "A report of swine erysipelas infection in an organised farm in Kerala," Indian Journal of Animal Research, 2019. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/cbb91017c6fbe9dc332a1457bb5df6f08da48c92

[12] S.J. Oliveira, P. Rodrigues, A. Okatani et al., "Surveillance of swine erysipelas by bacteriologic and molecular analysis on slaughtered pigs from farms in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil," Journal, 2009. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/06a0ad506ee62fa1f502ab2fbd8c39930f8770d8

[13] Y. Shimoji, Y. Ogawa, M. Tsukio et al., "Genome-Wide Identification of Virulence Genes in Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae: Use of a Mutant Deficient in a tagF Homolog as a Safe Oral Vaccine against Swine Erysipelas," Infection and Immunity, 2019. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/89f3e2d17fec6680607fa7904c465d51aa33ae98

[14] E. Borrathybay, F.J. Gong, L. Zhang et al., "Role of surface protective antigen A in the pathogenesis of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae strain C43065," Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 2015. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25223326/

[15] F. Shi, T. Harada, Y. Ogawa et al., "Capsular Polysaccharide of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, the Causative Agent of Swine Erysipelas, and Its Modification with Phosphorylcholine," Infection and Immunity, 2012. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/64ad4964a958fc42e46d6d65a805d70ea7d3e21c

[16] T. Harada, Y. Ogawa, M. Eguchi et al., "Phosphorylcholine and SpaA, a choline-binding protein, are involved in the adherence of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae to porcine endothelial cells, but this adherence is not mediated by the PAF receptor," Veterinary Microbiology, 2014. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24856134/

[17] T. Harada, Y. Ogawa, M. Eguchi et al., "Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae exploits cytokeratin 18-positive epithelial cells of porcine tonsillar crypts as an invasion gateway," Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology, 2013. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23601839/

[18] O. Tarasov, O.M. Zakharova, N. Hudz et al., "Studying the peculiarities of neuraminidase production of the swine erysipelas causative agent," Bulletin "Veterinary Biotechnology", 2022. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/661901c542bdb13f1d461cf1001e4a05110ac00b

[19] N.L. Godoy, J.B. de Moraes, C.A. de Castro et al., "Immunogenicity and Protection by DnaK and SpaA Recombinant Proteins Against Erysipelothrix Rhusiopathiae in a Murine Model," Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry, 2023. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37815427/

[20] W. Zhu, C. Cai, J. Li et al., "Characterization of protective antigen CbpB as an adhesin and a plasminogen-binding protein of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae," Research in Veterinary Science, 2019. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31060015/

[21] W. Zhu, Q. Zhang, J. Li et al., "Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase acts as an adhesin in Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae adhesion to porcine endothelial cells and as a receptor in recruitment of host fibronectin and plasminogen," Veterinary Research, 2017. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28327178/

[22] O. Tarasov, G. Kovalenko, L. Muzykina et al., "Genome Sequence of Erysipelothrix sp. Strain Poltava, Isolated from Acute Septic Erysipelas of Swine in Ukraine," Microbiology Resource Announcements, 2022. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/1614dc76b515341ede1000fb643ab76883400e4b

[23] A.H.Y. Kwok, Y. Li, J. Jiang et al., "Complete genome assembly and characterization of an outbreak strain of the causative agent of swine erysipelas – Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae SY1027," BMC Microbiology, 2014. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/05a68abcbc0a2fbb8ce2e171c7755a13a07777dd

[24] Y. Ogawa, T. Ooka, F. Shi et al., "The Genome of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, the Causative Agent of Swine Erysipelas, Reveals New Insights into the Evolution of Firmicutes and the Organism's Intracellular Adaptations," Journal of Bacteriology, 2011. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/e422cf4789e28035fe0ed47e56f9913a94c63680

[25] R. Söderlund, N. Formenti, S. Calò et al., "Comparative genome analysis of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae isolated from domestic pigs and wild boars suggests host adaptation and selective pressure from the use of antibiotics," Microbial Genomics, 2020. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32735209/

[26] D. Habte, D. Tamir, "Swine Erysipelas; Its Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Treatment and Control and Preventive Measures, Comprehensive Review," Journal of Clinical Epidemiology & Toxicology, 2020. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/cba8a120e4d5384b98a62799125e7e9e9fc7abb6

[27] B. Kumwimba, H. Nyandwe, A. Ngulu Nsasi, "Swine erysipelas, clinical diagnosis and medical management: cases in farm near the city of Lubumbashi," World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2021. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/9562ded6d205ddb15a3286edb343f762f5b602d4

[28] N. Arora, V. Rajora, A. Prasad et al., "Urticarial form of swine erysipelas: a case report," Journal, 2011. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/039743c06936688949d6c70a1a4c0d28481ae9f9

[29] R.D. Shuman, O.L. Osteen, "Swine Erysipelas (Diamond Skin Disease)," Journal, 2010. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/cedbf06ae66b433100e318be640d4f12043f0036

[30] J. Wabacha, G. Gitau, J. Nduhiu et al., "An outbreak of urticarial form of swine erysipelas in a medium-scale piggery in Kiambu District, Kenya," Journal of the South African Veterinary Association, 1998. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/1720bb5b2cd26823415d84817cd49af9467bde22

[31] M. Zicheng, G. Jinyuan, P. Tao et al., "Comprehensive diagnosis and control of a case of high fatal acute swine erysipelas," Journal, 2018. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/20572a02700d71778bd94c23be420f47e20061e3

[32] Y. Zou, X. Zhu, H. Muhammad et al., "Characterization of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae strains isolated from acute swine erysipelas outbreaks in Eastern China," Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 2015. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/9fbfe0e39014558abecd2086f1fb9a6b4ed54b9d

[33] D. Yu-chu, "Diagnosis and treatment experience for the mixed infection of acute swine fever and swine erysipelas," Journal, 2015. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/370ecd85f21f5715290735da856a820e00715298

[34] E.J. Ebwanga, S.M. Ghogomu, J. Paeshuyse, "Molecular Characterization of ASFV and Differential Diagnosis of Erysipelothrix in ASFV-Infected Pigs in Pig Production Regions in Cameroon," Veterinary Sciences, 2022. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36006355/

[35] M. Uchiyama, Y. Shimazaki, Y. Isshiki et al., "Pathogenic characterization of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Met-203 type SpaA strains from chronic and subacute swine erysipelas in Japan," Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 2016. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/37805a8d3b570678ef6b62ff3cb0fabaeb5ddcd4

[36] H. To, H. Sato, A. Tazumi et al., "Characterization of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae strains isolated from recent swine erysipelas outbreaks in Japan," Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 2012. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/6b1932fe2842a305a6dc7f173756916fd1a1c241

[37] Y. Ohno, K. Yamazaki, N. Kasai et al., "Association of Live Vaccine with Swine Erysipelas Found in Meat Inspection," Journal of the Japan Veterinary Medical Association, 2023. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/4b8500c602bae5fd64fcece68e194318466e0dde

[38] D. Risco, P. Fernández Llario, R. Velarde et al., "Outbreak of swine erysipelas in a semi-intensive wild boar farm in Spain," Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 2011. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/62b17b1cc8b9e67f254dd5a1884a1605f992d49c

[39] P.E. Etterlin, D.A. Morrison, J. Österberg et al., "Osteochondrosis, but not lameness, is more frequent among free-range pigs than confined herd-mates," Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica, 2015. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26416598/

[40] C. Coombs, G. Hadfield, G.E. Henson, "A Note on the Endocarditis of Swine Erysipelas and its Relation to the Cardiac Infections of Man," Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 1926. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/9b740046ecfd6c82b7aba9055ec2b9f5c0ebece1

[41] N. Noguchi, M. Sasatsu, T. Takahashi et al., "Detection of plasmid DNA in Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae isolated from pigs with chronic swine erysipelas," Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 1993. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/26e30f936a79e134f025071fd6628574f891365c

[42] T. Opriessnig, J.S. Bender, P. Halbur, "Development and Validation of an Immunohistochemical Method for Rapid Diagnosis of Swine Erysipelas in Formalin-Fixed, Paraffin-Embedded Tissue Samples," Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 2010. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/d9bca2d29445487b53ce9401d8c8e47e47d0c0bb

[43] Y. Shimoji, Y. Mori, K. Hyakutake et al., "Use of an Enrichment Broth Cultivation-PCR Combination Assay for Rapid Diagnosis of Swine Erysipelas," Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 1998. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/512e38b3541bdc682010900f692430841e8599a7

[44] B. Volard, L. Mignot, E. Piednoir et al., "Systemic Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae infection not associated with endocarditis highlighting bacteriological diagnosis difficulties Case report and literature review," Annales de Biologie Clinique, 2016. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27112902/

[45] N. Barman, D. Borkotoky, B. Borah et al., "Seasonal emergence of swine erysipelas in hilly state Nagaland, Northeast India," Journal, 2016. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/1dfee68cee16812f3f1d617064c60aaaf1a3f614

[46] Y. Shimoji, K. Shiraiwa, H. Tominaga et al., "Development of a Multiplex PCR-Based Assay for Rapid Serotyping of Erysipelothrix Species," Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 2020. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32269099/

[47] Y. Yamazaki, E. Oba, N. Kashiwagi et al., "Development of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for rapid and simple detection of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae," Letters in Applied Microbiology, 2014. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24261887/

[48] L.G. Giménez-Lirola, C.T. Xiao, M. Zavala et al., "Improving ante mortem diagnosis of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae infection by use of oral fluids for bacterial, nucleic acid, and antibody detection," Journal of Microbiological Methods, 2013. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23201482/

[49] Y. Ogawa, K. Shiraiwa, Y. Ogura et al., "Clonal Lineages of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Responsible for Acute Swine Erysipelas in Japan Identified by Using Genome-Wide Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism Analysis," Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 2017. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/78f014f013720f823f5fbb1f7b34d02caaddf76c

[50] J. Webster, B. Bowring, L. Stroud et al., "Population Structure and Genomic Characteristics of Australian Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Reveals Unobserved Diversity in the Australian Pig Industry," Microorganisms, 2023. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36838261/

[51] K. Shiraiwa, Y. Ogawa, S. Nishikawa et al., "Single nucleotide polymorphism genotyping of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae isolates from pigs affected with chronic erysipelas in Japan," Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 2017. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28250289/

[52] Y. Yan-bin, L. Qian-wen, Y. Zhi-Peng et al., "Development of recombinant SpaA-based ELISA for detection of antibodies against swine erysipelas," Journal, 2017. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ae7b7934f47963768850559250d5147d28af7571

[53] E. Sanchez-Tarifa, C. Alonso, I. Pérez et al., "A field comparison study of two vaccine protocols against Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae in two types of swine breeds in Spain," BMC Veterinary Research, 2024. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/bce3d49c9d8a3c884e35451d6d4ff3137b1e1907

[54] M.J. Bernal-Guadarrama, D. García-Parraga, N. Fernández-Gallardo et al., "Development of an indirect immunofluorescence technique for the evaluation of generated antibody titers against Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae in captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus)," Archives of Microbiology, 2014. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25064337/

[55] R. Melnik, N.V. Khaustova, N. Melnik et al., "Analysis of the Market of Vaccines against Swine Erysipelas in the Russian Federation," The Veterinarny Vrach, 2022. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/c1cd6c6ab3c1df979e59c4cd98d7ed89bb3bff5c

[56] T. Opriessnig, T. Forde, Y. Shimoji, "Erysipelothrix Spp.: Past, Present, and Future Directions in Vaccine Research," Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 2020. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32351978/

[57] Y. Shimoji, M. Tsukio, Y. Ogawa et al., "A putative transcription regulator involved in the virulence attenuation of an acriflavine-resistant vaccine strain of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, the causative agent of swine erysipelas," Veterinary Microbiology, 2019. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/7786b717ee94546825c463b7e040e14174a29f8a

[58] H. To, N. Tsutsumi, A. Tazumi et al., "Protection of immunized mice and swine to challenge exposure with Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae strains obtained from recent swine erysipelas outbreaks in Japan," Journal, 2013. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ae159312f9b1753f3cebaacc9da521c1519da094

[59] Z. Cheng, H. Huang, S. Cao et al., "Construction of a recombinant Bacillus subtilis strain expressing SpaA and CbpB of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae and evaluation of the strain immunogenicity in a mouse model," Sheng Wu Gong Cheng Xue Bao, 2024. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39722513/

[60] E. Sánchez-Tarifa, F.A. García-Vázquez, A. Vela et al., "Post-vaccination evaluation of an erysipelas/parvovirus bivalent vaccine administered to sows during lactation on follicular development and piglet growth," Veterinary and Animal Science, 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40212818/

[61] L.C. Spetic da Selva, R. Robbins, C. Archer et al., "Efficacy of a Self-Vaccination Strategy for Influenza A Virus, Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, and Lawsonia intracellularis in Swine," Vaccines, 2025. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/b2022147f20a3adc49900bdc0f4eeeeea17dde80

[62] J.J. McGlone, L.C. Spetic da Selva, R. Robbins, "Self-vaccination for swine influenza, Mycoplasma, erysipelas, and ileitis," AASV Pre-Conference Seminars. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/f0a94f5f84193c0410407eafa1c112d2d6e5fbdc

[63] A. Shakhov, L. Sashnina, G. Vostroilova et al., "Effect of Vaccination of Piglets against Classical Swine Fever and Erysipelas on Pro-Antioxidant Status," Transactions of the Educational Establishment "Vitebsk the Order of 'the Badge of Honor' State Academy of Veterinary Medicine", 2024. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/8dee530f1950bbcc159581e8c6868aa40335fe3e

[64] N. Imaeda, A. Ando, M. Takasu et al., "Influence of swine leukocyte antigen haplotype on serum antibody titers against swine erysipelas vaccine and reproductive and meat production traits of SLA-defined selectively bred Duroc pigs," Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 2018. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/255026536f59da0254c5a330aac73d93162c277a

[65] M.A. Kuzmenko, L.H. Tsaturyan, O.D. Sklyarov, "Improving the control of specific activity of vaccines against erysipelas," Биотехнология: Научные Исследования и Связь с Производством, 2024. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/8aae7507cb166c8e912d7f16cacd7a44278ae15f

[66] Rosskopf-Streicher, Johannes, Wilhelm et al., "Potency Testing of Swine Erysipelas Vaccines by Serology Results of a Pre-validation Study," ALTEX, 1999. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/d76e33b25103483287608dad1a7dec1197a892e5

[67] S. Johannes, J. Hartinger, C. Hendriksen et al., "Humane endpoints in the efficacy testing of swine erysipelas vaccines," ALTEX, 2003. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/495ea78beb0b902df0837241e13d207d2876c884

[68] K. Schutte, A. Szczepanska, M. Halder et al., "Modern science for better quality control of medicinal products 'Towards global harmonization of 3Rs in biologicals': The report of an EPAA workshop," Biologicals, 2017. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28596049/

[69] N. Pinchuk, "Current global approach to quality control swine erysipelas vaccines by 'potency'," Journal, 2017. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/2c809aad1fc7c14eaca312a1f3202b4ce1a2b98b

[70] T. Takahashi, T. Sawada, K. Ohmae et al., "Antibiotic resistance of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae isolated from pigs with chronic swine erysipelas," Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 1984. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/7c6c88d9330fa651832526f1f1073bba7507f625

[71] M. Ozawa, K. Yamamoto, A. Kojima et al., "Etiological and biological characteristics of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae isolated between 1994 and 2001 from pigs with swine erysipelas in Japan," Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 2009. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/965438cdc62b10671c228c18424bf6e9d632cd55

[72] K. Yamamoto, M. Kijima, H. Yoshimura et al., "Antimicrobial susceptibilities of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae isolated from pigs with swine erysipelas in Japan, 1988-1998," Journal of Veterinary Medicine B, 2001. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/a12b5da8172042892d365bba881b0ed812c8586c

[73] C. Wu, C. Lv, Y. Zhao et al., "Characterization of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Isolates from Diseased Pigs in 15 Chinese Provinces from 2012 to 2018," Microorganisms, 2021. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34946215/

[74] A. Zhang, C. Xu, H. Wang et al., "Presence and new genetic environment of pleuromutilin-lincosamide-streptogramin A resistance gene lsa(E) in Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae of swine origin," Veterinary Microbiology, 2015. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25759293/

[75] M. Pomorska-Mól, K. Kwit, K. Wierzchosławski et al., "Effects of amoxicillin, ceftiofur, doxycycline, tiamulin and tulathromycin on pig humoral immune responses induced by erysipelas vaccination," Veterinary Record, 2016. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27072375/

[76] R. Vougat Ngom, Z. Mafokemg, E. Assana, "Practices and impact of biosecurity on pig performance in the West Region of Cameroon," Porcine Health Management, 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41787569/

[77] J. Akkina, W. Weber, L. Becton, "Detection of a Swine Erysipelas Outbreak Using Enhanced Passive Surveillance," Online Journal of Public Health Informatics, 2013. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/7f37961bb755b12128960ee731d261f998b86cd7

[78] A. Rosamilia, G. Galletti, S. Benedetti et al., "Condemnation of Porcine Carcasses: A Two-Year Long Survey in an Italian High-Throughput Slaughterhouse," Veterinary Sciences, 2023. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37505886/

[79] M. Vieira-Pinto, N. Langkabel, S. Santos et al., "A European survey on post-mortem inspection of finishing pigs: Total condemnation criteria to declare meat unfit for human consumption," Research in Veterinary Science, 2022. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35932591/

[80] L. Guardone, A. Vitali, F. Fratini et al., "A Retrospective Study after 10 Years (2010-2019) of Meat Inspection Activity in a Domestic Swine Abattoir in Tuscany: The Slaughterhouse as an Epidemiological Observatory," Animals, 2020. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33080947/

[81] J. Canotilho, A.C. Abrantes, D. Risco et al., "First Serologic Survey of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae in Wild Boars Hunted for Private Consumption in Portugal," Animals, 2023. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37760336/

[82] N. Formenti, S. Calò, N. Vitale et al., "Influence of Anthropic Environmental-Related Factors on Erysipelas in Wild Boar," Ecohealth, 2021. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34606027/

[83] Y. Shimoji, M. Osaki, Y. Ogawa et al., "Wild boars: A potential source of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae infection in Japan," Microbiology and Immunology, 2019. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31373400/

[84] D. Ayala, N.P. Evans, D. Wilson et al., "In vitro Evaluation of Candidate Bacillus Strains Against erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae from Erysipelas Outbreaks in Layer Flocks," Avian Diseases, 2025. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/214707130137b1e788d942f5272230785aa4da23

[85] X. Yang, X. Xue, Y. He et al., "Exploring the Effect of Active Components in Oil Tree Peony Seed Meal on Swine Disease Resistance and its Potential Mechanisms Based on Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking," Chemistry and Biodiversity, 2024. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/2ddae06f31d0a45463fc5c990235b25d1672ec04

[86] S. Fan, H. Xia, L. Jing et al., "An integrated intelligent system for early disease detection in swine using fused visual, acoustic, and infrared thermal features," Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials, 2026. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ea6ae97028d3f23a84ca2e5c80c6e7c7f1a79640

[87] "Swine erysipelas," CABI Compendium, 2022. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/dff975adc485761599363011e38b9d0c4798013f

[88] A.G. Shakhov, V.N. Kotsarev, L.Y. Sashnina et al., "Biochemical Status of Piglets During Vaccination against Classical Swine Fever and Erysipelas," Bulletin of Veterinary Pharmacology, 2024. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/e77d9ccb7bee5d18db75744c610fcd904adb7f53

[89] M. Kuzmenko, L.H. Tsaturyan, O. Sklyarov, "Analysis of Epizootological Data for Swine Erysipelas on the Territory of the Russian Federation," AIC Development Problems of the Region, 2022. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/1136e63d389c6a42597bdfa4a2eb8ebb28e7da19

[90] N. Pinchuk, A. Golovko, T. Garkavenko, "Analysis of the epizootic situation of the swine erysipelas on the territory of Ukraine for 2006–2017," Bulletin "Veterinary Biotechnology", 2019. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/e3fd44ad88fb83f3d2d40ed97b292f05709e9ac0

[91] Y. Kataoka, "The Protection of Swine Erysipelas in Dolphins," Journal, 2019. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/7955841e7eae00d1601a9b8657755c8fcc634776

[92] A. Stafa, K. Margariti, I. Kumbe, "The Study of Technology and the Production of Lyophilized Vaccine against Swine Erysipelas," Journal, 2017. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/6c230f7c9e8ac990b4cc3669745a9d882d8d3403

[93] H. Tang, J. Xie, L. Wang et al., "Complete genome sequence of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae strain GXBY-1 isolated from acute swine erysipelas outbreaks in south China," Genomics Data, 2016. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/3f03dbfbbc8f2f73a5b62ed1fcee911d5661e77d

[94] L.V. Es, "Swine Erysipelas Infection in Man," Journal, 2017. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/99c2a37cbfb02328fd093fd94cb7f78eafcb457e

[95] 肖华春, 王成业, 魏磊 et al., "Swine erysipelas live vaccine heat-resistant protective agent, preparation method and application," Journal, 2016. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/36f5454f76e6e7c5c22c8ca23b767d73deb4641d

[96] J. Klauder, L.L. Righter, M.J. Harkins, "A Distinctive and Severe Form of Erysipeloid among Fish Handlers: Report of Clinical and Laboratory Studies; Demonstration of the Bacillus of Swine Erysipelas," Journal, 1926. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/1573edacd2f30349e5e648b91fc91c1b39bcc00e

[97] M. Uchiyama, K. Yamamoto, M. Ochiai et al., "Prevalence of Met-203 type spaA variant in Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae isolates and the efficacy of swine erysipelas vaccines in Japan," Biologicals, 2014. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/96db7cd3a8e3edd19b0e7ab7f12df7231602ca7f

[98] A.D. Roenko, N. Pimenov, "Biotechnology of erysipelas vaccines: perspective solutions," Veterinariya, Zootekhniya i Biotekhnologiya, 2025. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/d98d4fe744cf565ed019b495e1daa83381a5de65

[99] J. Klauder, "Erysipeloid and Swine Erysipelas in Man: A Clinical and Bacteriologic Review; Swine Erysipelas in the United States," Journal, 1926. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/92fab9878c35889640d9ad1ef5824b53380a1f36

[100] N.E. Wayson, "An Epizootic among Meadow Mice in California, caused by the Bacillus of Mouse Septicemia or of Swine Erysipelas," Journal. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/4aa84c02af2efc2c4113254c5f8468681e3cf5c1

[101] H. Schmidt, "The Identity of Swine Erysipelas And Urticaria in the Pig," Journal. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/a1db03cd39811238264bce7a43d1c6b36140c56b

[102] A. Lemierre, "Human Infection by 'Swine Erysipelas' from Sheep; Intradermal Reaction in Diagnosis," Journal. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/b5fd7d2c4077c22e21159408963d6f1a63782c0b

[103] H. Taylor, "The Skin Lesions of Swine Erysipelas," Journal, 1904. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/2e35642a11dcbd91ed29708ab1363581a9b6ac17

[104] Müller, "Inoculations against Swine-erysipelas (Rothlauf)," The Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Archives, 1897. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/4f593116c555c440b09365e40afd5787d257c576

[105] M. Migita, "Swine erysipelas occured in Tokyo and in district Saitama," Journal. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/b8010d7b9e110849a4e5ef3fe4459c3931030fbc

[106] K. Bierbaum, H. Gottron, "On Erysipeloid and its Relation to Swine Erysipelas," Journal. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/b7f64189c43a335213dce3bb8eed5c6587bc172f

[107] C. Zimmermann, "Metastasis in the eye from swine erysipelas," Journal, 1929. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/4f4f56e118819f32eda83e681b419659d3c128eb

[108] Nörner, "Swine Erysipelas in Man," Journal. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/2b823eea0e877c77b4345514392b030ce0e45c7e

[109] K. Wollak, "Changes produced in organs of horses used for production of swine erysipelas serum," Journal, 1926. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/71a33f5064ad914544dc288198be0769a9f59cd2

[110] H. Reinhardt, "Swine Erysipelas in Man and its Treatment," Journal. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/f6d9b5489fd7bd6e4882ea83d301de224bfd415e

[111] A.F. Castle, "A Note on The Serum and Vaccine Treatment for Swine Erysipelas," Journal, 1924. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/5ed00f3d7b148eff4e898f4a6d007ca697f2f223

[112] J. Verge, "Diseases common to Man and Animals. V. Swine Erysipelas," Journal. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/72b835502d283be2dfb480328e52e04c3f8b2388

[113] S. Fujimura, "On the Iodized Swine Erysipelas Vaccine," Journal, 1924. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/2abf83c756fc644fd8609a0541f81ab23b919c75

[114] R. Stow, "A Case of Swine Erysipelas Transmitted to Man," Journal, 1925. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/b37664d1a3908740363e2faffd6e6982ec05de14

[115] E. Schmidt, "The Immunisation of Horses with Cultures of the Swine Erysipelas Bacillus Killed with Methylene-Blue," Journal. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/e080e36dc2fde4d79466cc63b548d02e3902492a

[116] L. Martino, B. Serrano, J. Alomar et al., "Erysipelas with preferential brain and skin involvement in a Mediterranean bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus," Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 2024. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/08dcc0411e6229ae0a957510ff4b0aa1067e510b

[117] A.J. da Silva, A.C. Horta, A.M. Vélez et al., "Non-conventional induction strategies for production of subunit swine erysipelas vaccine antigen in rE. coli fed-batch cultures," SpringerPlus, 2013. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/53b813b3fbf726592aa0fb0d20ec3719d0d0a441

[118] A. Silva, M.R.C. Iemma, A.C.L. Horta et al., "Cloning, Auto-induction Expression, and Purification of rSpaA Swine Erysipelas Antigen," Current Microbiology, 2012. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/5232b4cc7ac2c4d147b58f2739506c5c3884792d

[119] G. Feng, "Isolation, Identification and Resistance of Swine Erysipelas," Journal, 2011. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/0c608c088196d2215a5d8b3da2df2a18d7b7aa94

[120] S.J. Cysewski, R.L. Wood, A.C. Pier et al., "Effects of aflatoxin on the development of acquired immunity to swine erysipelas," American Journal of Veterinary Research, 1978. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/0b5c7f667d2af80fbbbb93939594bef920c4b837

[121] H.W. Schoening, G. Creech, "Serological Studies of Swine Erysipelas with Particular Reference to Agglutination," Journal, 2010. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/2f6d97fbc45170235f08fc91cb023058e7dd6bf4

[122] X. Zhang, "Optimization of Identification Methods to Swine Erysipelas and Swine Plague in Slaughterhouse," Journal, 2010. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/8937927758275f488f14074cc42d24a3b851a71a

[123] G. Stiles, "Chronic erysipeloid (swine erysipelas) in a man; the effect of treatment with penicillin," Journal of the American Medical Association, 1947. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/c5d8c61c5f6bada30b2921966f4f6a247691c159

[124] R.L. Wood, "Swine erysipelas-a review of prevalence and research," Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 1984. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/bc5e16a5e0e518e619cdf8e389a2fe4b95405177

[125] C. Friendship, G. Bilkei, "Efficacy of oral vaccination against swine erysipelas in growing-finishing pigs in a clinically infected Slovakian pig herd," The Veterinary Journal, 2007. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/de49c1d11c1afad6c1b3552b979e537936ae3ff9

[126] 강현미, 김종만, 장금찬 et al., "The preparing method of inactivation vaccine of swine erysipelas treated with inactivation swine complement against antigen," Journal, 2007. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/9e7c721b65807ed2aa355d49842b375e10bf4539

[127] J.L. Byrne, R. Connell, "Studies of Swine Erysipelas of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Isolated in Different Areas in Canada," Journal, 2007. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/6202b078bf7504159828c2010be067ad1f940f78

[128] C.R. Hoffmann, G. Bilkei, "Oral vaccination against swine erysipelas-field experiences in Croatia," DTW. Deutsche Tierarztliche Wochenschrift, 2006. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/676f0ed2177e3682897ae44dc4a3296fa41dd96f

[129] I. Stoew, M. Jotow, S. Simeonow et al., "Use of dried serum albumin as shield media in the preparation of lyophilized live vaccine against swine erysipelas," Archiv fur Experimentelle Veterinarmedizin, 1980. URL: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/07483f72771f36b1de55f7e5d71e2dac59faa919

[130] F.M. Petri, G.D.S. Nogueira, G.M.R. Simão et al., "Pathogenic Potential of Erysipelothrix piscisicarius in Pigs and Its Implications for Surveillance in Brazil," Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40951670/

[131] D. Zhao, Y. Hu, H. Wu et al., "Phenotypic and Genotypic Characterization of a Highly Virulent Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Strain," Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 2024. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40303131/

[132] H.M. Javela, T. Lienemann, H. Nordgren et al., "Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae infection in a captive white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari) in Finland," Journal of Comparative Pathology, 2024. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38914039/

[133] G. Orth, "Pasteur and the veterinarians," Comptes Rendus Biologies, 2022. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36852597/

[134] A.E. Zautner, A. Tersteegen, C.J. Schiffner et al., "Human Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae infection via bath water - case report and genome announcement," Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 2022. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36353709/

[135] C.D. Hirwa, J. Mutabazi, J.D. Nsabimana et al., "Challenges and opportunities of smallholder pig production systems in Rwanda," Tropical Animal Health and Production, 2022. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36109474/

[136] M. Morimoto, A. Kato, Y. Akaike et al., "Comparative study of the phenotype and virulence of recent serovar 1a, 1b, and 2a isolates of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae in Japan," Veterinary Microbiology, 2022. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35623133/

[137] K. Lee, S.Y. Park, H.W. Seo et al., "Pathological and Genomic Findings of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Isolated From a Free-Ranging Rough-Toothed Dolphin Steno bredanensis (Cetacea: Delphinidae) Stranded in Korea," Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 2022. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35601406/

[138] J.M. Cavaillon, S. Legout, "Louis Pasteur: Between Myth and Reality," Biomolecules, 2022. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35454184/

[139] W. Xu, Y. Wang, Y.H. Wang et al., "Diversity and dynamics of bacteria at the Chrysomya megacephala pupal stage revealed by third-generation sequencing," Scientific Reports, 2022. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35132164/

[140] M. Pomorska-Mól, H. Turlewicz-Podbielska, J. Wojciechowski, "Effects of the microencapsulated feed additive of lactic acid bacteria on production parameters and post-vaccinal immune response in pigs," Polish Journal of Veterinary Sciences, 2021. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34730312/

[141] H. Shinkai, Y. Takahagi, T. Matsumoto et al., "A specific promoter-type in ribonuclease L gene is associated with phagocytic activity in pigs," Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 2021. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34321379/

[142] G. Cervellin, U. Longobardi, G. Lippi, "One holy man, one eponym, three distinct diseases. St. Anthony's fire revisited," Acta Biomedica, 2020. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33682839/

[143] T.F.M. Dos Reis, P.G. Hoepers, P.A.B.M. Peres et al., "First Report of Genetic Variability of Erysipelothrix sp. Strain 2 in Turkeys Associated to Vero Cells Morphometric Alteration," Pathogens, 2021. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33535396/

[144] M. Morimoto, A. Kato, H. Kojima et al., "Serovars and SpaA Types of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Isolated from Pigs in Japan from 2012 to 2019," Current Microbiology, 2021. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33145611/

[145] S.N. Kovalchuk, A.V. Babii, "Draft genome sequence data and comparative analysis of Erysipelothrix Rhusiopathiae vaccine strain VR-2," 3 Biotech, 2020. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33088652/

[146] S. Kovalchuk, A. Babii, "Draft genome sequence data of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae vaccine strain VR-2," Data in Brief, 2020. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33083506/

[147] T.L. Forde, N. Kollanandi Ratheesh, W.T. Harvey et al., "Genomic and Immunogenic Protein Diversity of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Isolated From Pigs in Great Britain: Implications for Vaccine Protection," Frontiers in Microbiology, 2020. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32231655/

[148] J. Gu, Y.X. Li, C.W. Xu et al., "Genome sequence of multidrug-resistant Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae ZJ carrying several acquired antimicrobial resistance genes," Journal of Global Antimicrobial Resistance, 2020. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32119991/

[149] "Erysipelas septicaemia in piglets born to vaccinated gilts," Veterinary Record, 2020. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32054802/

[150] S. Choe, J.H. Kim, K.S. Kim et al., "Impact of a Live Attenuated Classical Swine Fever Virus Introduced to Jeju Island, a CSF-Free Area," Pathogens, 2019. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31756940/

[151] M.K. Kouam, M. Jacouba, J.O. Moussala, "Management and biosecurity practices on pig farms in the Western Highlands of Cameroon (Central Africa)," Veterinary Medicine and Science, 2020. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31682081/

[152] K.I. Kobayashi, T. Kawano, S. Mizuno et al., "Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae bacteremia following a cat bite," IDCases, 2019. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31516830/

[153] J.M. Cavaillon, S. Legout, "Duclaux, Chamberland, Roux, Grancher, and Metchnikoff: the five musketeers of Louis Pasteur," Microbes and Infection, 2019. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31255675/

[154] G. Lacave, Y. Cui, A. Salbany et al., "Erysipelas vaccination protocols in dolphins Tursiops truncatus evaluated by antibody responses over twenty continuous years," Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 2019. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31219054/

[155] Y. Shimoji, M. Bito, K. Shiraiwa et al., "Disassociation of Spa type and serovar of an Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae serovar 6 strain isolated from a diseased pig," Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation, 2019. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30852953/

[156] H.R. Holt, P. Inthavong, K. Blaszak et al., "Production diseases in smallholder pig systems in rural Lao PDR," Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 2019. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30621889/

[157] W. Zhu, C. Wu, C. Kang et al., "Evaluation of the protective efficacy of four newly identified surface proteins of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae," Vaccine, 2018. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30446176/

[158] K. Shiraiwa, Y. Ogawa, S. Nishikawa et al., "Identification of serovar 1a, 1b, 2, and 5 strains of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae by a conventional gel-based PCR," Veterinary Microbiology, 2018. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30322520/

[159] Y. Ogawa, K. Shiraiwa, S. Nishikawa et al., "Identification of the Chromosomal Region Essential for Serovar-Specific Antigen and Virulence of Serovar 1 and 2 Strains of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae," Infection and Immunity, 2018. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29891546/

[160] P.F. Gerber, A. MacLeod, T. Opriessnig, "Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae serotype 15 associated with recurring pig erysipelas outbreaks," Veterinary Record, 2018. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29519854/

[161] W. Zhu, C. Cai, J. Huang et al., "Characterization of pathogenic roles of two Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae surface proteins," Microbial Pathogenesis, 2018. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29196173/

[162] W. Zhu, C. Cai, Y. Wang et al., "Characterization of roles of SpaA in Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae adhesion to porcine endothelial cells," Microbial Pathogenesis, 2017. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29038054/

[163] C. Kang, Q. Zhang, W. Zhu et al., "Transcription analysis of the responses of porcine heart to Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae," PLoS One, 2017. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28976997/

[164] E. Asimaki, O. Nolte, G. Overesch et al., "A dangerous hobby? Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae bacteremia most probably acquired from freshwater aquarium fish handling," Infection, 2017. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27873166/

[165] W. Yuan, Y. Zhang, G. Wang et al., "Genomic and proteomic characterization of SE-I, a temperate bacteriophage infecting Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae," Archives of Virology, 2016. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27541818/

[166] Y. Li, Y. Zou, Y. Xia et al., "Proteomic and Transcriptomic Analyses of Swine Pathogen Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Reveal Virulence Repertoire," PLoS One, 2016. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27479071/

[167] A. Jacobs, F. Harks, M. Hoeijmakers et al., "A novel octavalent combined Erysipelas, Parvo and Leptospira vaccine provides (cross) protection against infection following challenge of pigs with 9 different Leptospira interrogans serovars," Porcine Health Management, 2015. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28405422/

[168] SAC C VS, "Toxocara vitulorum identified in a suckled calf in Scotland," Veterinary Record, 2015. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26231874/

[169] A.A. Jacobs, F. Harks, M. Hoeijmakers et al., "Safety and efficacy of a new octavalent combined Erysipelas, Parvo and Leptospira vaccine in gilts against Leptospira interrogans serovar Pomona associated disease and foetal death," Vaccine, 2015. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26100922/

[170] "Erysipelas in turkeys, sheep and pigs," Veterinary Record, 2015. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25792678/

[171] F. Shi, Y. Ogawa, A. Sano et al., "Characterization and identification of a novel candidate vaccine protein through systematic analysis of extracellular proteins of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae," Infection and Immunity, 2013. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24019408/

[172] E. Balks, C. Wolf, H. Loessner et al., "Towards in vitro potency testing of inactivated erysipelas vaccines," Developments in Biologicals, 2012. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22888593/

[173] A. di Tizio, Ł.J. Łuczaj, C.L. Quave et al., "Traditional food and herbal uses of wild plants in the ancient South-Slavic diaspora of Mundimitar/Montemitro (Southern Italy)," Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 2012. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22672636/

[174] A. Kurian, E.J. Neumann, W.F. Hall et al., "Development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the serological detection of exposure of poultry in New Zealand to Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae and their serological response to vaccination," New Zealand Veterinary Journal, 2012. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22352927/