Salmonella and Escherichia coli in Poultry: Food Safety, Clinical Aspects, and Control Strategies

Introduction

Salmonella and Escherichia coli are the two most important foodborne pathogens of public health concern incriminated in poultry meat and eggs worldwide [1, 2]. These bacteria are frequently isolated from poultry production environments, processing plants, and retail products [3, 4, 5]. The question "does all chicken have salmonella" reflects a common consumer concern; while not every chicken carcass is contaminated, prevalence rates in retail poultry can be substantial, with studies reporting Salmonella detection in 22.6% to 33% of samples and E. coli in 5.7% to 43.4% of samples [1, 5]. Understanding the biology, epidemiology, and control of these pathogens is essential for veterinary professionals and food safety regulators. This article provides a detailed examination of Salmonella and E. coli in poultry, covering etiology, clinical disease, diagnostic approaches, antimicrobial resistance, and comprehensive control strategies.

Etiology and Taxonomy

Salmonella

Salmonella is a genus of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae [34]. The genus comprises two species: Salmonella enterica and Salmonella bongori. S. enterica is further divided into six subspecies, with subspecies enterica (subspecies I) being responsible for the vast majority of infections in warm-blooded animals [34]. Serotyping based on the Kauffmann-White scheme classifies Salmonella into over 2,600 serovars. In poultry, clinically relevant serovars include S. Enteritidis, S. Typhimurium, S. Infantis, S. Heidelberg, S. Kentucky, and S. Senftenberg [29, 34]. Host-adapted serovars such as S. Gallinarum and S. Pullorum cause systemic disease in birds but are rarely associated with human illness [34]. The question "salmonella chicken only" is misleading; while poultry is a major reservoir, Salmonella can colonize many animal species.

Escherichia coli

Escherichia coli is a Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that is a normal inhabitant of the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals [30]. However, certain pathotypes have acquired virulence genes enabling them to cause disease. In poultry, avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC) is the primary cause of colibacillosis, a disease complex including respiratory infection, septicemia, and polyserositis [30]. APEC strains typically possess virulence factors such as fimbriae, aerobactin iron acquisition systems, and colicin V plasmids [6]. Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC), including serotype O157:H7, is a major food safety concern, though its prevalence in poultry is generally lower than in cattle [7, 8]. The distinction between "chicken e coli or salmonella" is clinically important as they cause different disease syndromes and require different diagnostic and control approaches.

Epidemiology and Prevalence

Global Prevalence

The prevalence of Salmonella and E. coli in poultry varies widely by geographic region, production system, and sampling point along the food chain. In a study from Ibadan, Nigeria, Salmonella contamination was found in 33% of retail poultry meat samples and E. coli in 43.4% [1]. In Khartoum, Sudan, researchers detected Salmonella in 57.02% and E. coli in 57.02% of chicken meat and contact surface samples [4]. A study in England found Salmonella in 8.7% of frozen ready-to-cook chicken products, with S. Infantis and S. Enteritidis being the most common serovars [29]. In Brazil, tetracycline resistance genes were detected in 88.66% of Salmonella and 64.62% of E. coli isolates from poultry [9]. In Chad, the prevalence of Salmonella spp. was 6.74% and E. coli 5.70% in fecal samples from poultry farms [10]. In Bali, Indonesia, 63% of laying hens tested positive for E. coli and 2% for Salmonella sp. in the gastrointestinal tract [30].

Transmission Routes

Salmonella and E. coli can be transmitted through multiple routes in poultry production. Vertical transmission occurs when infected breeder flocks pass Salmonella to progeny via contaminated eggs [11]. Horizontal transmission occurs through fecal-oral spread, contaminated feed, water, litter, and equipment [12, 13]. Poultry feed is a significant source; a study in Kenya found E. coli in 58% and Salmonella in 28% of feed samples [12]. In Bangladesh, 71.43% of poultry feed samples contained Salmonella and 57.14% contained E. coli [13]. Rodents inhabiting poultry houses can carry and transmit these pathogens; a South African study found Salmonella in 29.9% and E. coli in 20.7% of rats captured from chicken farms [35]. Vegetation barriers can reduce but not eliminate transmission from animal operations to nearby produce fields [14]. Bioaerosols from poultry farms contain coliforms and E. coli, with concentrations ranging from 2.76 to 5.00 log CFU/m3 [15].

Risk Factors

Several management factors increase the risk of Salmonella and E. coli contamination in poultry flocks. Non-compliance with food hygiene, lack of maintenance of the habitat, and non-compliance with prophylactic and sanitary measures are significant risk factors [10]. Contact between poultry and wild birds, movement of farm handlers between pens, use of untreated water, and contamination of commercial feeds are associated with higher pathogen prevalence [2]. Free-range production systems may have higher bacterial loads compared to conventional confined systems [16]. The question "chicken salmonella uk" reflects regional variation; in the UK, a 2020 survey of frozen poultry products found Salmonella in 42 of 483 samples, with S. Enteritidis linked to a multi-country outbreak [29].

Clinical Aspects in Poultry

Salmonellosis

Salmonella infections in poultry manifest in several forms depending on the serovar and age of the bird. Pullorum disease, caused by S. Pullorum, primarily affects young chicks with high mortality, presenting with white diarrhea, anorexia, and weakness [11]. Fowl typhoid, caused by S. Gallinarum, is a septicemic disease affecting older birds, characterized by depression, anorexia, diarrhea, and decreased egg production [11]. Paratyphoid infections, caused by motile serovars such as S. Typhimurium and S. Enteritidis, are typically subclinical in adult birds but can cause mortality in young chicks [28]. Subclinically infected carrier birds shed Salmonella intermittently in feces, serving as a reservoir for environmental contamination [28]. The question "chicken bacteria disease" encompasses these diverse clinical presentations.

Colibacillosis

Avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC) causes colibacillosis, a disease complex that includes airsacculitis, pericarditis, perihepatitis, salpingitis, peritonitis, and septicemia [30]. Clinical signs include respiratory distress, depression, reduced feed intake, and increased mortality. Colibacillosis often occurs as a secondary infection following viral respiratory diseases such as infectious bronchitis or Newcastle disease [30]. The "chicken breast bacteria" concern relates to contamination of meat with these pathogens, which can occur during processing even in the absence of clinical disease in the flock.

Pathology

Gross lesions in salmonellosis include hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, necrotic foci in the liver and spleen, and caseous cecal cores in pullorum disease [11]. In fowl typhoid, the liver may be bronze-colored with necrotic foci, and the spleen is enlarged. In colibacillosis, lesions include fibrinous airsacculitis, pericarditis, and perihepatitis, often described as "glazed" organs [30]. The "chicken neck bacteria" concern relates to the high bacterial load often found in neck skin samples, which can harbor both Salmonella and E. coli.

Food Safety and Public Health Implications

Salmonella in the Food Chain

Poultry meat and eggs are the primary vehicles for human salmonellosis [29]. The question "does all chicken have salmonella" is answered by prevalence data; while not universal, contamination is common. In the United States, FSIS poultry salmonella standards set performance criteria for Salmonella prevalence in broiler carcasses [1]. The "fsis poultry salmonella" guidelines establish acceptable limits and testing protocols. In the UK, a 2020 outbreak of S. Enteritidis linked to frozen breaded chicken products resulted in over 400 human cases [29]. The question "salmonella chicken baby" reflects the particular vulnerability of infants to salmonellosis, which can cause severe dehydrating diarrhea and bacteremia.

Escherichia coli in the Food Chain

E. coli, particularly STEC serotypes, is a major cause of foodborne illness. The question "e coli on raw chicken" is relevant because raw poultry frequently carries generic E. coli as an indicator of fecal contamination, and pathogenic strains can be present [29]. A study in Egypt found E. coli in 11.7% of raw chicken and beef meat samples, with resistance to tetracycline (80.9%) and ampicillin (71.4%) [34]. In Togo, E. coli was detected in 32.98% of imported frozen poultry products [17]. The "chicken bacteria toxins" concern includes Shiga toxins produced by STEC and enterotoxins produced by some E. coli pathotypes.

Human Salmonellosis

Human salmonellosis typically presents as acute gastroenteritis with diarrhea, fever, and abdominal cramps [29]. In infants, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals, infection can progress to bacteremia and systemic disease [29]. The question "salmonella chicken baby" highlights the risk to infants, who may acquire infection through contaminated breast milk or formula if caregivers handle raw poultry improperly. The "salmonella chicken washing" practice is discouraged by food safety authorities because washing raw chicken can aerosolize bacteria, contaminating kitchen surfaces [29].

Diagnostic Approaches

Bacteriological Culture

Traditional culture methods remain the gold standard for Salmonella and E. coli isolation. For Salmonella, the ISO 6579 method involves pre-enrichment in buffered peptone water, selective enrichment in Rappaport-Vassiliadis broth, and plating on selective agars such as xylose lysine deoxycholate (XLD) agar and brilliant green agar [1, 18]. For E. coli, ISO 16654 specifies enrichment in modified tryptone soya broth followed by plating on sorbitol MacConkey agar for O157:H7 detection [1, 19]. Eosin methylene blue (EMB) agar is used for generic E. coli isolation [18, 13]. The "chicken breast bacteria" can be quantified using aerobic plate counts and Enterobacteriaceae counts [1].

Molecular Diagnostics

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays enable rapid and specific detection of Salmonella and E. coli. Multiplex PCR can simultaneously identify Salmonella Enteritidis, Shigella flexneri, and E. coli O157:H7 in poultry samples [8]. Real-time PCR targeting the invA gene for Salmonella and the stx1, stx2, and eae genes for STEC provides quantitative results [15, 35]. For Salmonella serotyping, PCR-based methods targeting serovar-specific genes such as sdfI for S. Enteritidis and spy for S. Typhimurium are used [35]. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) provides the highest resolution for epidemiological investigations and antimicrobial resistance gene profiling [29].

Serological Methods

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) are used for detecting antibodies against Salmonella in flock surveillance programs. Commercial ELISA kits detect antibodies to Salmonella lipopolysaccharide antigens, enabling identification of infected flocks [11]. Serological testing is particularly useful for monitoring breeder flocks for S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium.

FSIS Guidelines

The USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) has established Salmonella performance standards for poultry products [1]. These standards set maximum acceptable prevalence rates for Salmonella in broiler carcasses, ground chicken, and other poultry products. FSIS uses a combination of culture-based and molecular methods for verification testing. The "fsis poultry salmonella" guidelines require establishments to meet pathogen reduction performance standards or face regulatory action.

Antimicrobial Resistance

Resistance Profiles

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Salmonella and E. coli from poultry is a growing global concern [20, 32]. A study in Ethiopia found that all Salmonella isolates from poultry farms were resistant to ampicillin, with high resistance to sulfamethoxazole (85.1%), cefoxitin (85.1%), and tetracycline (77.8%) [20]. E. coli O157:H7 isolates showed complete resistance to ampicillin and 90% resistance to cefotaxime and tetracycline [20]. In Malaysia, Salmonella and E. coli from broilers showed 100% resistance to erythromycin, with high resistance to tetracycline (62% and 94.6%, respectively) and ampicillin (47.7% and 87%, respectively) [32]. In Brazil, tetracycline resistance genes tetA, tetB, and tetD were prevalent in both Salmonella and E. coli isolates [9].

Multidrug Resistance

Multidrug resistance (MDR), defined as resistance to three or more antimicrobial classes, is common in poultry isolates. In Ethiopia, MDR was identified in all Salmonella isolates and 80% of E. coli O157:H7 isolates [20]. In Malaysia, MDR was recorded in 82% of Salmonella and 100% of E. coli isolates [32]. In Pakistan, 40% of E. coli isolates from chicken meat and contact surfaces showed MDR [4]. The "chicken bacteria toxins" concern is compounded by the presence of MDR strains that limit treatment options for human infections.

Resistance Mechanisms

Resistance genes are often carried on mobile genetic elements such as plasmids, transposons, and integrons [6, 17]. In Salmonella and E. coli from poultry, beta-lactamase genes including blaTEM, blaCTX-M, and blaCMY confer resistance to penicillins and cephalosporins [12, 34]. Tetracycline resistance is mediated by tet genes encoding efflux pumps (tetA, tetB) or ribosomal protection proteins (tetM) [9]. Plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance genes such as qnrA, qnrB, and qnrS have been detected in poultry isolates [34]. Class 1 integrons carrying gene cassettes for aminoglycoside and trimethoprim resistance are common [17, 34]. Heavy metal tolerance genes are also found on plasmids in MDR isolates, suggesting co-selection pressure from disinfectant use [6].

Control Strategies

Biosecurity

Biosecurity measures are the first line of defense against Salmonella and E. coli introduction into poultry flocks. These include controlling access to poultry houses, using dedicated footwear and clothing, implementing all-in/all-out production systems, and preventing contact with wild birds and rodents [10, 2]. Vegetation barriers can reduce airborne transmission of pathogens from animal operations to nearby produce fields [14]. Rodent control is critical, as rats can carry Salmonella (29.9%) and E. coli (20.7%) [35].

Vaccination

Vaccination programs are available for Salmonella control in poultry. Live attenuated vaccines for S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium are used in breeder and layer flocks to reduce intestinal colonization and egg contamination [11]. Inactivated (killed) vaccines are also available and can be administered to breeders to provide passive immunity to progeny via maternal antibodies.

Feed and Water Management

Contaminated feed is a major source of Salmonella and E. coli introduction [12, 13]. Feed should be heat-treated or pelleted to reduce bacterial loads. Acidification of feed or water with organic acids (e.g., formic acid, propionic acid) can reduce Salmonella colonization [12]. Ensuring clean, treated water is essential, as untreated water is a risk factor for pathogen introduction [2].

Disinfection and Sanitation

Effective disinfection of poultry houses, equipment, and transport vehicles is essential. In vitro studies have shown that povidone-iodine (1% available iodine), 70% ethanol, 2% chlorhexidine digluconate, and quaternary ammonium compounds with formaldehyde are highly effective against Salmonella Enteritidis and E. coli, reducing counts by more than 6 log10 [31]. Formaldehyde has been used historically but is now prohibited in animal feed in the European Union [21]. Natural plant extracts such as lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) extract show some antibiofilm activity against Salmonella Senftenberg, though efficacy is limited [21]. Kasumba turate (Carthamus tinctorius) extract and Aloe vera gel extract have demonstrated antibacterial activity against Salmonella and E. coli in vitro [22, 23].

Processing Plant Interventions

In poultry processing plants, multiple interventions reduce pathogen contamination. Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) combined with ultrasound effectively inactivates Salmonella Typhimurium and E. coli in chiller tank water [24]. Gaseous ozone treatment can reduce Salmonella and E. coli in poultry litter, with higher concentrations (43.26 to 132.46 mg/L) and lower moisture content (30% or less) being more effective [7]. Thermal inactivation studies show that Salmonella is undetectable within 3 days at 50 degrees Celsius and within 1 hour at 60 degrees Celsius in poultry carcass and litter mixtures [25]. Biofilm removal from slaughterhouse surfaces is effective with citric acid and benzalkonium chloride but not with rhamnolipid [26].

Cooking and Consumer Handling

Proper cooking is the most effective method for eliminating Salmonella and E. coli from poultry meat. The question "cooking chicken kill bacteria" is answered affirmatively: cooking chicken to an internal temperature of 74 degrees Celsius (165 degrees Fahrenheit) kills vegetative bacterial cells [25]. The question "reheat chicken kill bacteria" is also answered affirmatively, provided the internal temperature reaches 74 degrees Celsius. However, reheating does not eliminate preformed toxins; "chicken bacteria toxins" such as heat-stable enterotoxins may persist after cooking. The practice of "salmonella chicken washing" is discouraged because it can spread bacteria to kitchen surfaces via aerosolization [29]. The question "does all chicken have salmonella" should not deter consumers from eating properly cooked chicken, as thermal inactivation is highly effective.

Antimicrobial Alternatives

Given the high prevalence of AMR, alternatives to conventional antimicrobials are being explored. Commensal E. coli strains can inhibit the growth of antibiotic-resistant Salmonella Heidelberg in vitro, downregulating genes involved in virulence, biofilm formation, and antimicrobial resistance [28]. Essential oils from herbs such as thyme, oregano, and cinnamon have shown antibacterial activity against Salmonella and E. coli isolated from infected broiler flocks [27]. Probiotics and prebiotics can competitively exclude pathogens from the intestinal tract.

Conclusion

Salmonella and Escherichia coli remain the most significant bacterial pathogens in poultry production, posing dual threats to animal health and food safety. The high prevalence of these organisms in poultry flocks and products, coupled with increasing antimicrobial resistance, demands integrated control strategies spanning biosecurity, vaccination, feed management, processing interventions, and consumer education. The questions "does all chicken have salmonella" and "e coli on raw chicken" reflect legitimate consumer concerns that should be addressed through transparent communication about prevalence and effective control measures. Veterinary professionals must remain vigilant in surveillance, diagnostics, and implementation of evidence-based control programs to mitigate the risks posed by these pathogens.

flowchart TD
    A[Poultry Flock], > B{Salmonella/E. coli Present?}
    B, >|Yes| C[Clinical Disease or Subclinical Carriage]
    B, >|No| D[Maintain Biosecurity]
    C, > E[Fecal Shedding]
    E, > F[Environmental Contamination]
    F, > G[Feed, Water, Litter, Equipment]
    G, > H[Processing Plant]
    H, > I[Contamination of Carcasses]
    I, > J[Retail Meat Products]
    J, > K[Consumer Handling]
    K, > L{Proper Cooking?}
    L, >|Yes (74°C)| M[Pathogen Inactivated]
    L, >|No| N[Risk of Foodborne Illness]
    N, > O[Human Salmonellosis/Colibacillosis]
    O, > P[Medical Treatment]
    P, > Q[Antimicrobial Resistance Selection]
    Q, > R[Resistant Strains in Environment]
    R, > A

References

[1] Adeyanju GT, Ishola O. Salmonella and Escherichia coli contamination of poultry meat from a processing plant and retail markets in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. SpringerPlus. 2014.

[2] Ssemakadde T, Petra NP, Busingye JC, et al. Prevalence, associated factors and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of Salmonella species and pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from broiler poultry farms in Wakiso district, Uganda. medRxiv. 2024.

[3] Detection of Salmonella and Escherichia coli in Chickens, Eggshells, and the Hands of Egg Handlers in Poultry Farms and Marketplaces in Khartoum, Sudan. Acta Scientific Nutritional Health. 2025.

[4] Munir Z, Bibi T, Sabir A, et al. Evaluation of Microbial Quality of Poultry Chicken and its Contact Surfaces for Escherichia Coli, Salmonella and Shigella and Detection of Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia Coli in Various Areas of Lahore, Pakistan. Journal of Pharma and Biomedics. 2026.

[5] Omer A, Ahmed M, Altijani AA, et al. Detection of Salmonella spp. and Escherichia Coli in Poultry Carcasses at Abattoir in Khartoum State Sudan. 2016.

[6] Ferreira JC, Penha Filho RP, Andrade LN, et al. Evaluation of heavy metal tolerance genes in plasmids harbored in multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica and Escherichia coli isolated from poultry in Brazil. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease. 2019.

[7] Chang R, Pandey P, Li Y, et al. Assessment of gaseous ozone treatment on Salmonella Typhimurium and Escherichia coli O157:H7 reductions in poultry litter. Waste Management. 2020.

[8] Sadeqi S, Heidariyeh P, Qorbani M, et al. Evaluation of Multiplex-PCR for Simultaneous Identification of Salmonella enteritidis, Shigella flexneri, and Escherichia coli O157: H7 in Poultry. 2019.

[9] Azevedo GR, Abreu DLC, Costa GA, et al. Tetracycline Resistance in Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli from Brazilian Poultry. Brazilian Journal of Poultry Science. 2025.

[10] Antipas B, Ossoga GW, Nodjidoumgoto N, et al. Prevalence and Risk Factors of Multidrug Resistant Salmonella spp and Escherichia coli in Poultry from Doba Commune, Chad. Microbiology Research Journal International. 2023.

[11] Anyanwu A, Fasina F, Ajayi O, et al. Antibiotic Resistant Salmonella And Escherichia Coli Isolated From Day-Old Chicks, Vom

[12] Ngai DG, Nyamache A, Ombori O. Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance profiles of Salmonella species and Escherichia coli isolates from poultry feeds in Ruiru Sub-County, Kenya. BMC Research Notes. 2020.

[13] Chowdhury AI, Iqbal A, Uddin M, et al. Study on Isolation and Identification of Salmonella and Escherichia coli from Different Poultry Feeds of Savar Region of Dhaka, Bangladesh. 2011.

[14] Glaize A, Young M, Harden L, et al. The effect of vegetation barriers at reducing the transmission of Salmonella and Escherichia coli from animal operations to fresh produce. Journal of Food Microbiology. 2021.

[15] Ruiz-Llacsahuanga B, Sanchez-Tamayo M, Dev Kumar G, et al. Comparison of three air sampling methods for the quantification of Salmonella, Shiga-toxigenic Escherichia coli (STEC), coliforms, and generic E. coli from bioaerosols of cattle and poultry farms. Journal of Food Protection. 2024.

[16] Adeboye O, Kyei Kwofie M, Bukari N. Campylobacter, Salmonella and Escherichia coli Food Contamination Risk in Free-Range Poultry Production System. Advances in Microbiology. 2020.

[17] Touglo K, Djeri B, Sina H, et al. First detection of resistance genes and virulence factors in Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp in Togo: the case of imported chicken and frozen by-products. BMC Microbiology. 2025.

[18] Ngandolo BN, Mopaté Y, Ndoutamia G, et al. Characteristics of poultry farms and assessment of their level of contamination by Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli in the towns of N'Djamena and Doba in Chad. Revue Scientifique et Technique. 2018.

[19] Ishola O, Taiwo AG. Frozen Retail Poultry Meat Contact Surfaces as Sources of Salmonella and Escherichia Coli Contamination in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. 2014.

[20] Tilahun H, Efa DA. Antimicrobial resistance profiling of Salmonella and Escherichia coli isolates from conventional poultry farms in Hossana Town, Central Ethiopia. BMC Veterinary Research. 2025.

[21] Choroszy-Król I, Futoma-Kołoch B, Kuźnik K, et al. Exposing Salmonella Senftenberg and Escherichia coli Strains Isolated from Poultry Farms to Formaldehyde and Lingonberry Extract at Low Concentrations. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2023.

[22] Khatimah K, Purwanti S, Jamilah. The antibacterial activity of Kasumba turate (Carthamus tintorius L.) against Salmonella pullorum and Escherichia coli as an alternative feed additive for poultry. 2021.

[23] Aniekwu CC, Okafor UC, Onyeneho VI. The Antibacterial Effect of Aloe Vera Gel Extract against Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi and Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Gastrointestinal Tract of Poultry Birds. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Applied Science. 2024.

[24] Rossi AP, Kalschne DL, Byler API, et al. Effect of ultrasound and chlorine dioxide on Salmonella Typhimurium and Escherichia coli inactivation in poultry chiller tank water. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry. 2021.

[25] Biswas S, Nazmi A, Pitesky M, et al. Thermal Inactivation of Escherichia coli and Salmonella Typhimurium in Poultry Carcass and Litter at Thermophilic Temperatures. Journal of Applied Poultry Research. 2019.

[26] Carvalho D, Chitolina GZ, Wilsmann DE, et al. Development of Predictive Modeling for Removal of Multispecies Biofilms of Salmonella Enteritidis, Escherichia coli, and Campylobacter jejuni from Poultry Slaughterhouse Surfaces. Foods. 2024.

[27] Habibi H, Ghahtan N, Morammazi S. The Effects of some Herbal Essential Oils against Salmonella and Escherichia coli Isolated from Infected Broiler Flocks. Journal of World Poultry Research. 2018;8(3):74-80.