Poultry Diseases: Comprehensive Diagnosis and Treatment Reference

1. Introduction

Bacterial infections remain a major cause of morbidity, mortality, and economic losses in commercial poultry operations worldwide. The etiological agents span Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, including Enterobacteriaceae, Pasteurellaceae, Mycoplasmataceae, and Clostridiaceae, among others. The emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains, coupled with the globalisation of poultry production, necessitates robust diagnostic protocols and evidence-based treatment algorithms. This reference provides a systematic examination of bacterial pathogens affecting chickens, turkeys, ducks, and geese, with emphasis on diagnostic techniques, antimicrobial susceptibility profiling, and therapeutic decision-making. The content adheres strictly to veterinary principles and excludes human clinical data except where direct comparative host-range parallels are drawn, such as in zoonotic Salmonella and Campylobacter infections.

2. Diagnostic Approaches

2.1 Conventional Culture and Phenotypic Identification

Isolation of bacteria in pure culture remains the gold standard for definitive diagnosis of poultry bacterial diseases. Selective and differential media, including MacConkey agar, Xylose Lysine Deoxycholate agar, and blood agar supplemented with specific growth factors, are routinely employed [1, 2, 3]. For fastidious organisms such as Avibacterium paragallinarum, reduced oxygen tension and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) supplementation are required [4]. Similarly, Mycoplasma species require specialised media formulations; the choice of medium significantly affects growth kinetics and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) determinations [5].

Phenotypic identification relies on Gram stain morphology, oxidase and catalase reactions, and biochemical profiling. However, phenotypic methods can be inconclusive for closely related taxa, such as the differentiation of Gallibacterium anatis from other Pasteurellaceae members [6, 7].

2.2 Molecular Diagnostics

Nucleic acid amplification techniques, including conventional and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), and recombinase-aided amplification (RAA) coupled with CRISPR/Cas12a, have transformed the diagnostic landscape. A versatile LAMP assay using phenol red and lateral flow dipsticks has been developed for on-site detection of Riemerella anatipestifer [1]. Multiplex platforms, such as the RAA-CRISPR/Cas12a system, enable simultaneous detection of seven Eimeria species in chickens [8]; the same principle can be adapted for bacterial targets. For viral agents often co-infecting with bacteria, multiplex MALDI-TOF MS platforms have been described for simultaneous detection of 13 goose viruses, though the technology is equally applicable to bacterial identification [9].

Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) provides the highest discriminatory power for epidemiological investigations and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) gene surveillance. WGS has been applied extensively to characterise avian Escherichia coli, Salmonella enterica, and Pasteurella multocida strains, revealing clonal dissemination and plasmid-mediated resistance mechanisms [10, 3, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19].

2.3 Proteomic and Metabolomic Approaches

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) enables rapid identification of bacterial isolates at the species and subspecies level. This technique relies on ribosomal protein spectral fingerprints and has been validated for the major poultry pathogens [9]. Metabolomic fingerprinting, such as the identification of adenine as a biomarker for early detection of E. coli infection in broilers, offers a non-invasive diagnostic avenue [20].

2.4 Diagnostic Workflow

The following flowchart outlines the recommended diagnostic pathway for a suspected bacterial outbreak in poultry.

flowchart TD
 A[Clinical signs / flock history] --> B{Postmortem examination}
 B --> C[Gross lesions suggestive of bacterial disease]
 C --> D["Sample collection: liver, spleen, lungs, intestine, joint fluid"]
 D --> E[Direct smear / Gram stain]
 E --> F[Bacterial culture on selective media]
 F --> G{Pure colony obtained?}
 G -->|Yes| H[Phenotypic identification / MALDI-TOF]
 G -->|No| I[Re-streak purification]
 I --> G
 H --> J{Need molecular confirmation?}
 J -->|Yes| K[PCR / LAMP / RAA-CRISPR]
 J -->|No| L[Antimicrobial susceptibility testing]
 K --> L
 L --> M["Interpretation: MIC / disk diffusion"]
 M --> N[Treatment selection]
 N --> O[Monitor clinical response]
 O --> P[Confirmatory re-sampling if needed]

3. Major Bacterial Pathogens

3.1 Escherichia coli

Avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC) is the primary cause of colibacillosis, manifesting as airsacculitis, pericarditis, perihepatitis, salpingitis, and yolk sac infection [21, 22, 23]. APEC strains harbour a range of virulence factors, including adhesins, toxins, and iron acquisition systems. The emergence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing and carbapenem-resistant E. coli in poultry is a serious concern. CTX-M-type ESBL genes are frequently identified in chicken isolates, with evidence of plasmid-mediated dissemination [10, 24, 25]. The blaNDM-5 gene has been reported in carbapenem-resistant E. coli from yellow-feather broiler farms, spread via multiple plasmid replicons [18]. Colistin resistance, mediated by mcr genes, has been detected in broiler chickens in Malaysia [26]. Clonal lineages such as ST23 and ST101 are associated with increased slaughter condemnations in Denmark [23].

3.2 Salmonella enterica

Non-typhoidal Salmonella serovars, including Enteritidis, Typhimurium, and Infantis, are major zoonotic pathogens transmitted through the poultry food chain [11, 12, 13, 27, 14, 28, 29, 16, 17, 30, 31]. Surveillance studies in Thailand have documented clonal and plasmid-mediated dissemination of MDR Salmonella Enteritidis [11]. In South Korea, the pESI plasmid has been identified in MDR Salmonella Infantis from chicken slaughterhouses [28]. Genomic characterisation of Salmonella Typhimurium from poultry in the United States has revealed distinct AMR profiles and population structures [13]. Biofilm-forming Salmonella strains pose additional challenges in processing plants, acting as critical control points for contamination [29].

3.3 Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli

Campylobacteriosis in poultry is predominantly subclinical, but the bacteria are a leading cause of human foodborne gastroenteritis. Campylobacter jejuni isolates from laying hens in China exhibit a high prevalence of the lincomycin resistance gene lnu(C) [32, 33]. Widespread dissemination of antimicrobial-resistant Campylobacter has been documented in the Canadian poultry production continuum [34].

3.4 Pasteurella multocida

Fowl cholera, caused by P. multocida, is a highly fatal septicemic disease of poultry and waterfowl. Genomic analysis of avian P. multocida in China has revealed diverse AMR profiles, including resistance to tetracyclines and sulfonamides [3]. The organism is also associated with avian influenza co-infections and is a differential diagnosis for swollen head syndrome [4]. Comprehensive reviews of Avian Cholera in Waterfowl: Pasteurella multocida Serotypes, Outbreak Dynamics, and Vaccination Approaches in Wild and Domestic Birds are available elsewhere.

3.5 Riemerella anatipestifer

Riemerella anatipestifer causes septicaemia and polyserositis in ducks, geese, and occasionally chickens. Serotyping and antimicrobial susceptibility profiling of Thai isolates have identified significant genetic diversity and resistance to common antibiotics [2]. A visual LAMP assay has been developed for rapid field detection of this pathogen [1].

3.6 Avibacterium paragallinarum

Infectious coryza, caused by Avibacterium paragallinarum, is an acute respiratory disease of chickens and quail. The bacterium has been comprehensively reviewed, including its pathogenesis, serovar diversity, and diagnostic challenges [4]. Differential diagnoses include avian influenza and infectious bronchitis. Detailed information is available in the article Infectious Coryza in Poultry and Ducks: Etiology, Clinical Signs in Chickens, Differential Diagnosis from Avian Influenza, and Prevention Strategies.

3.7 Gallibacterium anatis

Gallibacterium anatis is an emerging pathogen in laying hens and pet birds, associated with salpingitis and peritonitis. Its ability to form biofilm contributes to treatment failure and persistence in flocks [6, 7]. A dedicated review on Gallibacterium anatis in Laying Hens: Salpingitis Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Antimicrobial Management provides further detail.

3.8 Clostridium perfringens

Clostridium perfringens type A is the causative agent of necrotic enteritis in broiler chickens, a disease that has re-emerged with the restriction of in-feed antibiotics. Necrotising hepatitis associated with C. perfringens has also been reported in chicks [35]. Comprehensive reviews on Necrotic Enteritis in Broiler Chickens: Clostridium perfringens Virulence Factors, Gut Microbiome, and Probiotic Control Strategies are recommended for detailed pathogenesis and control.

3.9 Mycoplasma species

Mycoplasma gallisepticum and M. synoviae are important respiratory and articular pathogens in chickens and turkeys. In vitro susceptibility testing is highly medium-dependent; standardisation is critical for accurate MIC determination [5]. A comprehensive review of Mycoplasma synoviae: Infectious Synovitis in Chickens and Turkeys, Eggshell Apex Abnormalities and Control provides further detail.

3.10 Other Notable Pathogens

Vagococcus fluvialis has been associated with infective endocarditis in poultry, a rare but severe condition [36]. Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale causes ornithobacteriosis, a worldwide emerging respiratory disease reviewed comprehensively [37]. Bordetella avium and Gallibacterium anatis are also significant in turkey respiratory disease complexes. Clostridium perfringens infections are covered in the article Necrotic Enteritis in Broiler Chickens: Clostridium perfringens Virulence Factors, Gut Microbiome, and Probiotic Control Strategies. Staphylococcus aureus causes bumblefoot and osteomyelitis Staphylococcus aureus Bumblefoot and Osteomyelitis in Broilers: Etiology, Pathogenesis, and Integrated Control. Streptococcus zooepidemicus is an emerging pathogen Streptococcus zooepidemicus Bacterial Infection in Poultry: Etiology, Pathogenesis, and Diagnostic Approaches. Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium causes avian tuberculosis Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium in Poultry: Avian Tuberculosis, Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Control. Borrelia anserina causes avian spirochetosis Borrelia anserina and Argas persicus: Avian Spirochetosis, Tick-Borne Bacterial Disease of Poultry.

4. Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles

The widespread use of antibiotics in poultry production has selected for MDR bacteria. Recent surveillance from the United States (2015-2023) identified high levels of resistance to tetracyclines, sulfonamides, and ampicillin among E. coli and Salmonella isolates [38]. ESBL-producing E. coli from poultry in Turkey harbour a range of beta-lactamase genes [10]. The dissemination of the fosfomycin resistance gene fosA13, carried on a glutathione transferase in Morganella morganii from poultry, highlights the potential for horizontal transfer of resistance determinants [39].

Whole-genome sequencing has revealed that commensal E. coli in poultry can serve as reservoirs of resistance genes, including those encoding for ESBLs and carbapenemases [10, 21, 15, 24, 26]. The pESI plasmid is a major vehicle for MDR in Salmonella Infantis [28]. One Health genomic characterisation of ST83 E. coli has demonstrated the interconnectedness of poultry, human, and environmental compartments [21].

5. Treatment Principles

5.1 Antimicrobial Selection

Treatment decisions should be guided by culture and susceptibility testing. Empirical therapy may be initiated based on known local resistance patterns. Enrofloxacin is a commonly used fluoroquinolone for colibacillosis; pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) modelling, including Monte Carlo simulations, can optimise dosing regimens to achieve therapeutic targets [22]. However, fluoroquinolone use is restricted in some jurisdictions due to concerns over resistance selection.

For respiratory infections caused by Mycoplasma or Avibacterium, tetracyclines (doxycycline), macrolides (tylosin, tilmicosin), and pleuromutilins (tiamulin) are effective, but susceptibility should be confirmed by MIC testing [5].

5.2 Alternative and Adjunctive Therapies

The reduction of in-feed antibiotics has spurred interest in alternatives such as probiotics, prebiotics, organic acids, bacteriophages, and immunomodulators. For necrotic enteritis, competitive exclusion products and specific probiotics have shown efficacy in reducing Clostridium perfringens colonisation [35]. However, their use should be evidence-based and integrated with biosecurity measures.

5.3 Antimicrobial Stewardship

Judicious use of antibiotics is essential to mitigate the emergence and spread of AMR. The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) recommends the use of antimicrobial susceptibility testing to guide therapy and the implementation of treatment protocols based on defined daily doses. In the context of secondary bacterial infections following viral diseases (e.g., avian influenza, infectious bursal disease), a careful diagnosis of the primary agent is necessary to avoid unnecessary antibiotic use [40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55].

6. Conclusion

The diagnosis and treatment of bacterial diseases in poultry require a multidisciplinary approach that integrates classical bacteriology with modern molecular and proteomic tools. The escalating problem of antimicrobial resistance necessitates continuous surveillance and the development of alternative control strategies. Application of whole-genome sequencing for population structure analysis and resistance gene detection should become routine in diagnostic laboratories to inform treatment and biosecurity interventions.

References

[1] Wu J, Jiang N, Liang Q et al. A Comprehensive Visual Detection Strategy: Versatile LAMP Assay with Phenol Red and Lateral Flow Dipstick for On-Site Detection of Riemerella anatipestifer. Microorganisms. 2026.

[2] Pathomchai-Umporn C, Laopiem S, Witoonsatian K et al. Genetic diversity, serotype, and antimicrobial profiles of Riemerella anatipestifer isolated from ducks and chickens in Thailand. Poult Sci. 2026.

[3] Miao F, Dai B, Li Z et al. Antimicrobial resistance and genomic characteristics of avian Pasteurella multocida. Poult Sci. 2026.

[4] El-Gazzar M, Gallardo R, Bragg R et al. Avibacterium paragallinarum, the Causative Agent of Infectious Coryza: A Comprehensive Review. Avian Dis. 2025.

[5] Taiyari H, Abu J, Zakaria Z et al. Different media affect the growth and antimicrobial minimum inhibitory concentrations of Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae. J Microbiol Methods. 2026.

[6] Nofouzi K, Shakeri S, Nikkhah S et al. Gallibacterium anatis as an emerging pathogen in pet birds: biofilm formation contributes to treatment challenges and persistence. BMC Microbiol. 2025.

[7] Abd El-Ghany WA, Algammal AM, Hetta HF et al. Gallibacterium anatis infection in poultry: a comprehensive review. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2023.

[8] Guo L, Cui K, Yang Y et al. Field-deployable multiplex RAA-CRISPR/Cas12a platform rapidly and simultaneously detects seven Eimeria species in chickens. Poult Sci. 2026.

[9] Qiao F, Huang Y, Wang M et al. Multiplex MALDI-TOF MS for simultaneous detection of 13 goose viruses. J Virol Methods. 2026.

[10] Şahin S, Celil Özaslan BG, Moğulkoç MN et al. Antimicrobial resistance profiles and whole-genome sequence analysis of extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) production in commensal Escherichia coli from poultry in Türkiye. PLoS One. 2026.

[11] Zhang Z, Suksawat F, Zhang X et al. Clonal and Plasmid-Mediated Dissemination of Multidrug-Resistant Salmonella Enteritidis in Chicken Production, Northeastern Thailand. Pathogens. 2026.

[12] Salem M, Al-Khalidi AAH, Hammad E et al. Isolation and characterization of Salmonella enterica serovars from poultry in Egypt: a comprehensive genetic analysis of ESBLs, MCR, integron and other resistance genes. BMC Vet Res. 2025.

[13] Chen Z, Cui M. Comparative genomics reveals antimicrobial resistance and population structure of chicken-associated Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium in the United States. Lett Appl Microbiol. 2025.

[14] Song SU, La TM, Kim T et al. Whole-genome sequencing analysis of Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis isolated from poultry sources in Mongolia. Front Vet Sci. 2025.

[15] Ahmed S, Das T, Nath C et al. Whole-genome characterization and global phylogenetic comparison of cefotaxime-resistant Escherichia coli isolated from broiler chickens. J Microbiol. 2025.

[16] Chacón RD, Ramírez M, Suárez-Agüero D et al. Genomic Differences in Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence Among Key Salmonella Strains of Serogroups B and D1 in Brazilian Poultry. Curr Microbiol. 2025.

[17] Jia C, Huang C, Zhou H et al. Avian-specific Salmonella transition to endemicity is accompanied by localized resistome and mobilome interaction. Elife. 2025.

[18] Ma Z, Wang B, Zeng D et al. Rapid Dissemination of bla(NDM-5) Gene among Carbapenem-Resistant Escherichia coli Isolates in a Yellow-Feather Broiler Farm via Multiple Plasmid Replicon. Pathogens. 2024.

[19] Kromann S, Baig S, Stegger M et al. Longitudinal study on background lesions in broiler breeder flocks and their progeny, and genomic characterisation of Escherichia coli. Vet Res. 2022.

[20] Ranaraja A, Subhasinghe I, Ahmad SN et al. Temporal metabolomic fingerprinting identifies adenine as a novel biomarker for early detection of Escherichia coli infection in broiler chickens. Sci Rep. 2025.

[21] Cai X, Kang C, Li G et al. Poultry pathogenicity, antimicrobial resistance, and one health genomic characterization of ST83 Escherichia coli. Braz J Microbiol. 2025.

[22] Felix LA, Egito BM, David DD et al. Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamic efficacy prediction indices, and Monte Carlo simulations of enrofloxacin for the treatment of colibacillosis in broiler chickens. Open Vet J. 2025.

[23] Kromann S, Baig S, Olsen RH et al. Dramatic increase in slaughter condemnations due to Escherichia coli ST23 and ST101 within the Danish broiler production. Vet Microbiol. 2023.

[24] Chen X, Ju ZJ, Li C et al. Epidemiological characteristics of human- and chicken-derived CTX-M-type extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli from China. Vet Microbiol. 2024.

[25] Shen Z, Zhang CY, Gull T et al. Comparison of genotypic and phenotypic antimicrobial resistance profiles of Salmonella enterica isolates from poultry diagnostic specimens. J Vet Diagn Invest. 2024.

[26] Devan SS, Aklilu E, Hamdan RH et al. Detection of colistin-resistant Escherichia coli isolated from broiler chickens in Kelantan, Malaysia. Trop Biomed. 2022.

[27] Wang H, Zhai Y, Zhao G et al. Research on the traceability and transmission factors of Salmonella in the broiler production chain: A one health perspective. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2025.

[28] Jeong J, Chae M, Kang M-S et al. Emergence and characteristics of multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Infantis harboring the pESI plasmid in chicken slaughterhouses in South Korea. Microbiol Spectr. 2025.

[29] Biyashev B, Zhusanbayeva A, Kirkimbayeva Z et al. Surveillance of Salmonella and antimicrobial resistance in industrial poultry enterprises: biofilm-forming strains and critical control points. J Med Microbiol. 2025.

[30] Chen J, Huang L, An H et al. One Health approach probes zoonotic non-typhoidal Salmonella infections in China: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Glob Health. 2024.

[31] Pan H, Jia C, Paudyal N et al. Comprehensive Assessment of Subtyping Methods for Improved Surveillance of Foodborne Salmonella. Microbiol Spectr. 2022.

[32] Li W, Ge S, Liu Y et al. Characterization of lincomycin resistance gene lnu(C)-carrying Campylobacter jejuni. Vet Microbiol. 2025.

[33] Kuang S, Wang Z, Hu X et al. Prevalence and genetic characteristics of Campylobacter jejuni from laying-hens in Hubei Province, China. BMC Vet Res. 2025.

[34] Medrano H, Hill S, Boulianne M et al. Widespread dissemination of Salmonella, Escherichia coli and Campylobacter resistant to medically important antimicrobials in the poultry production continuum in Canada. PLoS One. 2025.

[35] Marcano V, Gamble T, Maschek K et al. Necrotizing Hepatitis Associated with Clostridium perfringens in Broiler Chicks. Avian Dis. 2022.

[36] Chacón RD, Amorim TF, Cencara Rojas T et al. Avian Infective Endocarditis Associated with Vagococcus fluvialis: A Case Report and Literature Review. Animals (Basel). 2026.

[37] El-Ghany WAA. An updated comprehensive review on ornithobacteriosis: A worldwide emerging avian respiratory disease. Open Vet J. 2021. *** Disclaimer: This article is for educational and informational purposes only. It is not intended to substitute for professional veterinary advice, diagnosis, treatment, or regulatory guidance. Always consult a licensed veterinarian or qualified specialist regarding animal health, disease diagnosis, and therapeutic decisions.

[38] Wang AT, Tang L, Gao A et al. Investigation of the Antimicrobial Resistance of Important Pathogens Isolated from Poultry from 2015 to 2023 in the United States. Pathogens. 2024.

[39] Zhang R, Yu Y, Huang L et al. Characterization of FosA13, a novel fosfomycin glutathione transferase identified in a Morganella morganii isolate from poultry. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2025.

[40] Islam MM, Nadia MMA, Islam MR et al. Fowl adenovirus infections: A comprehensive review of prevalence, pathogenesis, diagnosis, control, and economic impact. Poult Sci. 2026.

[41] Huang Q, Yang F, Yu J et al. Novel duck reovirus: A comprehensive review of molecular pathogenesis and advances in diagnosis and vaccination. Poult Sci. 2026.

[42] Yunita MN, Khairullah AR, Saepulloh M et al. Infectious laryngotracheitis: A serious threat to poultry health. Open Vet J. 2025.

[43] Alexander Morris ER, Schroeder ME, Anderson PN et al. Optimization and Validation of Universal Real-Time RT-PCR Assay to Detect Virulent Newcastle Disease Viruses. Viruses. 2025.

[44] Chen J, Li P, Zou W et al. Chicken interferon-induced transmembrane proteins inhibit Newcastle disease virus infection by affecting viral entry and W protein expression. Vet Res. 2025.

[45] Kim HR, Song HS, Jang I et al. Nationwide Surveillance of Fowl Adenovirus Infection and Coinfection With Other Diseases on Slaughter Broiler in South Korea. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2025.

[46] Kardoudi A, Benani A, Allaoui A et al. Fowl Adenovirus Serotype 1: From Gizzard Erosion to Comprehensive Insights into Genome Organization, Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Prevention. Vet Sci. 2025.

[47] Zhao Z, Ke J, Liu M et al. Pathogenicity and transmissibility differences in goose-originated subgenotype 3 duck Tembusu virus in goose embryos and 3-day-old goslings. Avian Pathol. 2025.

[48] Nakhaie M, Rukerd MRZ, Shahpar A et al. A Closer Look at the Avian Influenza Virus H7N9: A Calm before the Storm? J Med Virol. 2024.

[49] Wang S, Liu X, Chen J et al. First detection and biological characterization of an avian metaavulavirus 8 isolated from a migratory swan goose in Qinghai Lake, Northwest China. Microbiol Immunol. 2024.

[50] Sha Y, Yan W, Liu X et al. The first report and biological characterization of Avian Orthoavulavirus 16 in wild migratory waterfowl and domestic poultry in China reveal a potential threat to birds. Avian Pathol. 2025.

[51] Liu H, Wang C, He Y et al. Assessing a respiratory toxic infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) strain: isolation, identification, pathogenicity, and immunological failure insights. Microbiol Spectr. 2024.

[52] Lei X, Wang A, Zhu S et al. From obscurity to urgency: a comprehensive analysis of the rising threat of duck circovirus. Vet Res. 2024.

[53] El-Shall NA, El-Hamid HSA, Elkady MF et al. Corrigendum: Epidemiology, pathology, prevention, and control strategies of inclusion body hepatitis and hepatitis-hydropericardium syndrome in poultry: A comprehensive review. Front Vet Sci. 2022.

[54] El-Shall NA, El-Hamid HSA, Elkady MF et al. Epidemiology, pathology, prevention, and control strategies of inclusion body hepatitis and hepatitis-hydropericardium syndrome in poultry: A comprehensive review. Front Vet Sci. 2022.

[55] Kumar J, Dandapat S, Panickan S et al. Expression profiles of toll like receptors, MHC and cytokine genes along with viral load in organs of ducklings infected with an Indian isolate of duck enteritis virus. Microb Pathog. 2022.

[56] Haroun M, Tratrat C, Mathew RT et al. Avian Candidiasis: A Comprehensive Review of Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Control. Vet Sci. 2026.

[57] Yang L, Zhou M, Guo W et al. A Comprehensive Review of Wooden Breast Myopathy in Broilers: Impacts, Detection, Processing, and Future Perspectives. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2026.

[58] Yan W, Liu X, Jiang S et al. Emergence and characterization of historically extinct virulent genotype IV Newcastle disease virus in wild and domestic birds: genetic insights, pathogenicity, and vaccine efficacy. J Virol. 2025.

[59] Yao Z, Xue W, Chen J et al. Culture breakthrough enables goose circovirus (GoCV) isolation and pathogenic gosling modeling to uncover the association between viral infection and vaccine failure. Virulence. 2025.

[60] Xue Y, Liu M, Ji L et al. The ITR regions play a significant role in modulating viral pathogenicity demonstrated by the reverse genetics system of a novel goose parvovirus. Vet Microbiol. 2025.

[61] Wei J, Cen P, Bi D. A case of H10N3 avian influenza in a young woman. Med. 2025.

[62] Nour I, Álvarez-Narváez S, Kulkarni A et al. IBDV-SSA, a novel molecular approach for the recovery of infectious bursal disease virus whole genomes from FTA cards. Microbiol Spectr. 2025.

[63] Chen YM, Wei P, Liao HY et al. Comprehensive analysis of Eimeria necatrix infection: From intestinal lesions to gut microbiota and metabolic disturbances. Poult Sci. 2025.

[64] Xiang W, Chen Y, He Y et al. The GLI3 may be involved in the damage process of Eimeria tenella to chicken cecal tissue. Vet Parasitol. 2025.

[65] Aslan AN, Abayli H, Tonbak S et al. First detection and molecular characterization of Chaphamaparvovirus galliform in broiler and turkey flocks in Türkiye. BMC Vet Res. 2025.

[66] Ammar AM, Abd El-Aziz NK, Aggour MG et al. A Newly Incompatibility F Replicon Allele (FIB81) in Extensively Drug-Resistant Escherichia coli Isolated from Diseased Broilers. Int J Mol Sci. 2024.