Mycoplasma gallisepticum: Taxonomy, Pathogenesis, Diagnostics, and Control

Introduction

Mycoplasma gallisepticum is a pathogenic bacterium belonging to the class Mollicutes, order Mycoplasmatales, and family Mycoplasmataceae. It is the primary etiological agent of chronic respiratory disease (CRD) in chickens and infectious sinusitis in turkeys, causing significant economic losses to the global poultry industry through reduced egg production, decreased feed conversion efficiency, increased mortality, and carcass condemnation at processing [1]. M. gallisepticum is characterized by its small genome size (approximately 1.0 Mb), lack of a cell wall, and dependence on host-derived nutrients for survival, which imposes strict requirements for specialized culture media and diagnostic approaches [2]. The organism is transmitted both vertically (transovarian) and horizontally via respiratory aerosols, contaminated fomites, and direct bird-to-bird contact [3]. Control programs rely on a combination of biosecurity, surveillance, antimicrobial therapy, and vaccination, with increasing attention directed toward the development of novel vaccines and alternative therapeutic agents due to the emergence of antimicrobial resistance [4, 1].

Taxonomy and Genomic Features

M. gallisepticum is a member of the class Mollicutes, a group of bacteria distinguished by the absence of a peptidoglycan cell wall. This structural feature renders the organism intrinsically resistant to beta-lactam antimicrobials and necessitates the use of alternative drug classes for treatment [1]. The genome of M. gallisepticum is among the smallest of self-replicating organisms, encoding a limited repertoire of metabolic enzymes and relying on the host for amino acids, nucleotides, and lipids [5]. Genomic characterization of field isolates has revealed considerable genetic diversity, including variations in genes encoding surface lipoproteins and adhesins that are critical for host colonization and immune evasion [6]. Fluoroquinolone resistance genotypes have been identified in Colombian poultry isolates, with mutations in the gyrA and parC genes correlating with reduced susceptibility to enrofloxacin and other fluoroquinolones [6]. The small genome and limited biosynthetic capacity also explain the fastidious growth requirements of M. gallisepticum in vitro, where complex media supplemented with serum, sterols, and nucleic acid precursors are essential for cultivation [2].

Pathogenesis and Host Interactions

The pathogenesis of M. gallisepticum infection begins with colonization of the respiratory epithelium, primarily the tracheal mucosa, where the bacterium adheres via specialized adhesin proteins such as GapA and CrmA [1]. Adherence is followed by the induction of a robust host inflammatory response, characterized by infiltration of lymphocytes, macrophages, and heterophils into the submucosa, leading to mucosal thickening, deciliation, and epithelial hyperplasia [7]. The organism produces several virulence factors, including hydrogen peroxide and superoxide radicals, which cause oxidative damage to host tissues [1]. Recent studies have elucidated molecular mechanisms underlying M. gallisepticum pathogenesis, including the role of Enhancer of Zeste homolog 2 (EZH2)-mediated histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation in silencing LIM domain-containing protein 1 and activating Hippo signaling pathways, thereby promoting cellular proliferation and inflammation [8]. Additionally, the TatD nuclease has been identified as a virulence factor that contributes to immune evasion by degrading neutrophil extracellular traps, and the MAPK pathway has been implicated in the host response to infection [9]. Prior infection with M. gallisepticum induces long-lasting partial immunity that reduces transmission within flocks, although sterilizing immunity is not achieved and recovered birds may remain carriers [3].

Clinical Disease and Pathology

In chickens, M. gallisepticum infection typically manifests as chronic respiratory disease (CRD), characterized by rales, coughing, nasal discharge, conjunctivitis, and sinus swelling [1]. The disease is often exacerbated by concurrent infections with respiratory viruses such as Newcastle disease virus or infectious bronchitis virus, or by bacterial pathogens such as Escherichia coli, leading to more severe clinical signs and higher mortality [35]. In turkeys, the infection frequently presents as infectious sinusitis, with pronounced infraorbital sinus swelling and caseous exudate accumulation [35]. Coinfections with other pathogens, such as Pasteurella multocida, can result in high mortality in commercial turkey flocks [35]. In layer hens, M. gallisepticum infection causes a significant drop in egg production, reduced eggshell quality, and increased embryonic mortality [1]. The organism has also been detected in ducks using droplet digital PCR, indicating a broader host range than traditionally recognized [34]. Serological evidence of M. gallisepticum exposure has been documented in trafficked parrots and macaws in Colombia, suggesting that psittacine birds may serve as reservoirs for the pathogen [10].

Diagnostic Approaches

Accurate and timely diagnosis of M. gallisepticum infection is essential for effective disease management and control. Diagnostic methods can be broadly categorized into culture-based, serological, and molecular techniques.

Culture and Isolation

Isolation of M. gallisepticum requires specialized media, such as Frey's medium or modified Hayflick's medium, supplemented with 10-20% swine or horse serum, yeast extract, and glucose [2]. The organism grows slowly, forming characteristic fried-egg colonies on solid media after 3-10 days of incubation at 37 degrees Celsius in a humidified atmosphere with 5-10% carbon dioxide [2]. Different media formulations can affect both growth rates and antimicrobial minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values, highlighting the need for standardized protocols in diagnostic laboratories [2]. The MyMIC network has advanced efforts to standardize diagnostics and antimicrobial susceptibility testing for pathogenic mycoplasmas of livestock origin [11].

Serological Methods

Serological detection of M. gallisepticum-specific antibodies is commonly performed using commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits, the rapid serum agglutination (RSA) test, and the hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test [10]. ELISA assays offer high throughput and quantitative results, making them suitable for flock-level surveillance. However, serological cross-reactivity with other avian mycoplasmas, particularly Mycoplasma synoviae, can complicate interpretation [10]. The RSA test is rapid and inexpensive but has lower specificity and is influenced by the presence of nonspecific agglutinins.

Molecular Detection

Molecular methods, particularly polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based assays, have become the gold standard for M. gallisepticum detection due to their high sensitivity, specificity, and rapid turnaround time. Conventional PCR targeting the 16S rRNA gene or the mgc2 gene is widely used for species identification [12]. Real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays, including those using TaqMan probes, enable quantification of bacterial load and differentiation between wild-type and vaccine strains [13, 12]. A multiplex TaqMan real-time PCR assay has been developed for the differential identification of wild-type and vaccine strains of M. gallisepticum, facilitating surveillance of vaccine efficacy and field strain circulation [12]. A duplex qPCR assay has also been described for strain-specific detection, allowing simultaneous monitoring of vaccine and wild-type populations [13].

Isothermal amplification methods offer field-deployable alternatives to PCR. Recombinase-aided amplification (RAA) combined with lateral-flow dipstick assays enables rapid visual detection of M. gallisepticum without the need for thermal cycling equipment [14]. An RAA-CRISPR/Cas12a platform has been developed for rapid and field-deployable detection of M. gallisepticum in poultry, combining isothermal amplification with CRISPR-based nucleic acid detection for enhanced specificity [15]. Colorimetric loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assays have been developed for field-ready detection using rapid DNA extraction methods, and high-throughput colorimetric LAMP detection with intelligent algorithm-assisted analysis has been described for large-scale screening [16, 17]. Droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) has been applied for the detection and quantification of M. gallisepticum in duck flocks, offering absolute quantification without the need for standard curves [34].

Immunochromatographic Assays

A rapid triple-target gold nanoparticle lateral flow immunoassay has been developed for the simultaneous detection of three avian mycoplasmas, including M. gallisepticum, providing a point-of-care diagnostic tool suitable for field use [18].

Sampling Considerations

The sensitivity of diagnostic testing is influenced by sampling location and frequency. Studies have shown that detection of M. gallisepticum populations in the respiratory tract of commercial layer pullets varies significantly depending on the sampling site (e.g., choanal cleft, trachea, or air sacs) and the frequency of sampling [19]. Multiple sampling time points and sites are recommended to maximize detection probability, particularly in subclinically infected flocks [19].

Antimicrobial Resistance and Treatment

Antimicrobial therapy is a cornerstone of M. gallisepticum control, but the emergence of resistance has complicated treatment protocols. The organism is intrinsically resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics due to the absence of a cell wall. Commonly used antimicrobial classes include macrolides (e.g., tylosin, tilmicosin), tetracyclines (e.g., oxytetracycline, doxycycline), fluoroquinolones (e.g., enrofloxacin), pleuromutilins (e.g., tiamulin), and aminoglycosides (e.g., gentamicin) [20, 21]. Epidemiological cutoff values for a novel pleuromutilin derivative (PFAM) and conventional antimicrobials against M. gallisepticum have been established in Guangdong, China, providing reference points for resistance surveillance [20]. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) relationships have been characterized for another novel pleuromutilin derivative (APTM), supporting dose optimization for clinical efficacy [21]. Macrolide-resistant M. gallisepticum strains have been reported, and alternative natural products, including Spirulina platensis, have demonstrated antimicrobial activity against macrolide-resistant isolates [22]. Cyclometalated palladium complexes have shown promising antimycoplasmal activity in vitro, representing a potential novel therapeutic class [23]. The development of standardized antimicrobial susceptibility testing methods for mycoplasmas is an ongoing priority, as media composition and growth conditions can significantly influence MIC values [11, 2].

Vaccination Strategies

Vaccination is a key component of integrated M. gallisepticum control programs. Several vaccine types are available, including live attenuated vaccines, bacterins, recombinant vector vaccines, and subunit vaccines.

Live Attenuated Vaccines

Live attenuated vaccines, such as the F-strain and the Vaxsafe MG304 strain, are widely used in layer pullets to reduce clinical disease and egg production losses [24, 25]. Day-old vaccination with the Vaxsafe MG304 live-attenuated vaccine has been shown to protect chickens from tracheal transcriptional changes induced by chronic infection with M. gallisepticum [25]. Tracheal transcriptional responses to challenge with virulent M. gallisepticum in chickens spray vaccinated with Vaxsafe MG304 have been characterized, revealing modulation of immune-related gene expression pathways [26]. Evaluation of vaccination programs in layer pullets using recombinant fowl-pox M. gallisepticum vaccine in comparison to commercially available F-strain live vaccines has demonstrated comparable immunogenicity and protective efficacy [24]. Assessment of tracheal mucosal thicknesses has been proposed as a preferable method for evaluating the immunogenicity of M. gallisepticum vaccines in poultry, providing a quantitative anatomical correlate of vaccine-induced protection [7].

Recombinant and Subunit Vaccines

Recombinant subunit vaccines have been developed to confer cross-protection against multiple pathogenic strains of M. gallisepticum [27]. These vaccines typically incorporate conserved immunogenic proteins, such as GapA or the N-terminal portion of the MGA_0676 lipoprotein, and have demonstrated efficacy in reducing bacterial load and clinical signs following challenge with heterologous strains [27]. Next-generation live vector vaccines targeting both M. gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae have been constructed using recombinant Salmonella, offering the potential for bivalent protection against two major avian mycoplasma pathogens [28].

Alternative and Adjunctive Therapies

The emergence of antimicrobial resistance has spurred interest in alternative therapeutic approaches. Natural products, including plant essential oils, Chinese herbal medicines, and probiotics, have been investigated for their anti-M. gallisepticum activity [4, 29, 30, 31]. A compound plant essential oil disinfectant has demonstrated remarkable inhibition efficacy against bacteria, viruses, and mycoplasmas, including M. gallisepticum [31]. Four Chinese herbal medicines and formulations have been evaluated for their efficacy in preventing and treating M. gallisepticum infection in chickens, with some formulations showing reductions in clinical signs and bacterial load [30]. Chicken-derived Lactobacillus strains have been shown to alleviate M. gallisepticum infection and improve growth performance in broilers, suggesting a role for probiotics in disease management [29]. Scutellaria baicalensis exosome-like nanoparticles have been found to combat lung infection caused by M. gallisepticum by regulating calcium homeostasis, and the mechanism involves inhibition of the TRPC1-STIM1/ORAI1 channel [32, 33]. Luteolin has been identified as a multifaceted agent that targets TatD nuclease and the MAPK pathway to inhibit M. gallisepticum infection [9].

Metabolic Plasticity and Real-Time Monitoring

Recent advances in analytical chemistry have enabled real-time monitoring of metabolic plasticity in M. gallisepticum under varying nutrient conditions using direct analysis in real time high-resolution mass spectrometry (DART-HRMS) [5]. This approach allows characterization of the organism's metabolic adaptations to nutrient limitation, providing insights into its survival strategies within the host environment and potential targets for therapeutic intervention [5].

Diagnostic Workflow

The following Mermaid diagram illustrates a diagnostic workflow for M. gallisepticum detection and differentiation in poultry flocks.

flowchart TD
    A[Clinical suspicion of MG infection], > B[Sample collection: choanal cleft, tracheal swab, or air sac]
    B, > C{Diagnostic objective}
    C, > D[Routine surveillance]
    C, > E[Outbreak investigation]
    C, > F[Vaccine efficacy monitoring]
    D, > G[Serological screening: ELISA or RSA]
    G, > H{Seropositive?}
    H, >|Yes| I[Confirm with molecular testing]
    H, >|No| J[No further action]
    I, > K[DNA extraction]
    E, > K
    F, > K
    K, > L{Detection method}
    L, > M[Conventional PCR or qPCR]
    L, > N[Isothermal amplification: RAA, LAMP, CRISPR-Cas12a]
    L, > O[Droplet digital PCR]
    M, > P{Strain differentiation required?}
    N, > P
    O, > P
    P, >|Yes| Q[Multiplex TaqMan qPCR or duplex qPCR for wild-type vs vaccine]
    P, >|No| R[Report positive/negative]
    Q, > R
    R, > S[Antimicrobial susceptibility testing if indicated]
    S, > T[Treatment or vaccination strategy adjustment]

Frequently Asked Questions

What is Mycoplasma gallisepticum?

Mycoplasma gallisepticum is a cell wall deficient bacterium that causes chronic respiratory disease in chickens and infectious sinusitis in turkeys, leading to significant economic losses in poultry production worldwide [1].

How is Mycoplasma gallisepticum transmitted?

M. gallisepticum is transmitted both vertically through the egg (transovarian) and horizontally via respiratory aerosols, direct contact between birds, and contaminated fomites such as equipment and personnel [3].

What are the clinical signs of Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection in chickens?

Clinical signs include rales, coughing, nasal discharge, conjunctivitis, sinus swelling, reduced feed intake, decreased egg production, and increased mortality, particularly when exacerbated by concurrent infections [1, 35].

How is Mycoplasma gallisepticum diagnosed in poultry?

Diagnosis is achieved through culture on specialized media, serological tests such as ELISA and RSA, and molecular methods including conventional PCR, real-time qPCR, isothermal amplification assays, and droplet digital PCR [18, 13, 14, 16, 17, 12, 15, 34].

What antimicrobials are effective against Mycoplasma gallisepticum?

Effective antimicrobial classes include macrolides, tetracyclines, fluoroquinolones, pleuromutilins, and aminoglycosides, although resistance has been reported and susceptibility testing is recommended [20, 22, 21, 11].

Are there vaccines available for Mycoplasma gallisepticum?

Yes, live attenuated vaccines (e.g., F-strain, Vaxsafe MG304), recombinant fowl-pox vectored vaccines, and subunit vaccines are available and used in layer pullets and breeders to reduce clinical disease and production losses [26, 27, 24, 28, 25].

Can Mycoplasma gallisepticum infect species other than chickens and turkeys?

Yes, M. gallisepticum has been detected in ducks, psittacine birds, and other avian species, indicating a broader host range than traditionally recognized [10, 34].

What is the role of natural products in controlling Mycoplasma gallisepticum?

Natural products such as plant essential oils, Chinese herbal medicines, probiotics, and algal extracts have demonstrated antimicrobial or immunomodulatory activity against M. gallisepticum and are being investigated as alternatives to conventional antibiotics [4, 29, 30, 32, 33, 22, 9, 31].

How does sampling location affect detection of Mycoplasma gallisepticum?

Detection sensitivity varies by sampling site, with choanal cleft and tracheal swabs yielding higher sensitivity than other sites, and multiple sampling time points are recommended to maximize detection probability [19].

What is the significance of strain differentiation in Mycoplasma gallisepticum diagnostics?

Strain differentiation between wild-type and vaccine strains is critical for monitoring vaccine efficacy, detecting field strain circulation, and guiding vaccination program adjustments in vaccinated flocks [13, 12].

References

[1] Chen J, Liu P, Chen Y. Pathogenic mechanisms and vaccine development for Mycoplasma gallisepticum in chickens. Front Microbiol. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41602759/

[2] Taiyari H, Abu J, Zakaria Z et al. Different media affect the growth and antimicrobial minimum inhibitory concentrations of Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae. J Microbiol Methods. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41319922/

[3] Sudnick MC, Sauer EL, DuRant SE. Prior Infection Induces Long-Lasting Partial Immunity to Reduce Transmission within Flocks in an Avian Host-Pathogen System. Ecol Evol Physiol. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41529280/

[4] Xi R, Li B, Wu Y et al. Natural Products Against Mycoplasma gallisepticum: Emerging Alternatives to Combat Antimicrobial Resistance. Microorganisms. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42354847/

[5] Bottinelli M, Zacometti C, Massaro A et al. Real-time monitoring of metabolic plasticity in Mycoplasma gallisepticum under varying nutrient conditions via DART-HRMS. Sci Rep. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42129501/

[6] Forero-Marin S, Gomez AP, Beltran-Leon M et al. A first look into the genomic characterization and fluoroquinolone resistance genotypes of Mycoplasma spp. in Colombian poultry. Poult Sci. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41401692/

[7] Kulappu Arachchige SN, Abeykoon AMH, Stevenson MA et al. Assessment of tracheal mucosal thicknesses is a preferable method for evaluation of the immunogenicity of Mycoplasma gallisepticum vaccines in poultry. Vaccine. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41365127/

[8] Wang Y, Li S, Guo Q et al. Enhancer of Zeste homolog 2-mediated histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation silences LIM domain-containing protein 1 and activates hippo signaling in Mycoplasma pathogenesis. Int J Biol Macromol. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41187851/

[9] Liu W, Wang S, Hu J et al. Targeting TatD nuclease and the MAPK Pathway: Luteolin multifaceted approach against Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection. Poult Sci. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41548475/

[10] Marín-Villa J, Alzate-Vargas JF, Ramírez TG et al. Serological evidence and risk factors of Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae exposure in trafficked parrots and macaws in Colombia. Open Vet J. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41630737/

[11] Jaÿ M, Klose SM, Bottinelli M et al. Advancing standardization of diagnostics and antimicrobial susceptibility testing for pathogenic mycoplasmas of livestock origin: insights from the MyMIC network. BMC Vet Res. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41462247/

[12] Xin J, Zhang J, Liang S et al. A multiplex TaqMan real-time PCR assay for differential identification of wild-type and vaccine strains of Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Poult Sci. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41702344/

[13] Fan P, Liu Z, Xu Y et al. Strain-specific detection of Mycoplasma gallisepticum: A duplex qPCR assay for vaccine efficacy and infection surveillance. Poult Sci. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42139893/

[14] Xuan H, Wang S, Ren X et al. Rapid visual detection of Mycoplasma gallisepticum by combining recombinase-aided amplification with lateral-flow dipstick assay. Poult Sci. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42127851/

[15] Hu Q, Zhang R, Liu J et al. A rapid and field-deployable RAA-CRISPR/Cas12a platform for detection of Mycoplasma gallisepticum in poultry. BMC Vet Res. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41526975/

[16] Jing W, Cai Q, Liang Y et al. High-throughput colorimetric LAMP detection of Mycoplasma gallisepticum with intelligent algorithm-assisted analysis. Anal Methods. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41891257/

[17] Mayne R, Pant SD, Huang J et al. A field-ready colourimetric LAMP assay for detection of Mycoplasma gallisepticum using rapid DNA extraction. Res Vet Sci. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41785617/

[18] Zidi S, Yacoub E, Chniba I et al. Development and validation of a rapid triple-target gold nanoparticle lateral flow immunoassay for detection of three avian mycoplasmas immunochromatographic strip test for avian mycoplasma detection. BMC Microbiol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42288724/

[19] Sasidharan SK, Elliott KEC, Evans JD et al. Effects of sampling location and frequency on the detection of Mycoplasma gallisepticum populations in the respiratory tract of commercial layer pullets. Poult Sci. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42308738/

[20] Zhang F, Chen B, Zhou X et al. Epidemiological cutoff values of the novel pleuromutilin derivative PFAM and conventional antimicrobials against Mycoplasma gallisepticum in Guangdong, China. BMC Vet Res. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42035078/

[21] Yang W, Ding H, Ma X et al. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic relationship of a novel pleuromutilin derivative APTM against Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Poult Sci. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41650639/

[22] Zidi S, Khadraoui N, Essid R et al. Spirulina platensis as a novel natural antimicrobial against macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma gallisepticum in poultry. Front Microbiol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41788330/

[23] Vishnyakov IE, Plekhanov AY, Goodkov AV et al. Cyclometalated palladium complexes as promising antimycoplasmatic drugs. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41711837/

[24] Hashish A, Chaves M, Osemeke O et al. Evaluation of Vaccination Programs in Layer Pullets Using Recombinant Fowl-Pox Mycoplasma gallisepticum Vaccine in Comparison to Commercially Available F-Strain Live Vaccines. Avian Dis. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41973009/

[25] Kamathewatta KI, Kanci Condello A, Ekanayake D et al. Day-old vaccination with the Vaxsafe MG304 live-attenuated vaccine protects chickens from tracheal transcriptional changes induced by chronic infection with Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Vaccine. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41202614/

[26] Kamathewatta KI, Kanci Condello A, Noormohammadi AH et al. Tracheal transcriptional response to challenge with virulent Mycoplasma gallisepticum in chickens spray vaccinated with the Vaxsafe MG304 live-attenuated vaccine. Vet Microbiol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42364325/

[27] Miller JM, Ozyck RG, Mara AB et al. Recombinant subunit vaccine against Mycoplasma gallisepticum disease confers cross-protection against multiple pathogenic strains. Infect Immun. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42283569/

[28] Sabir R, Liu M, Saeed HA et al. Next-generation live vector vaccine targeting Mycoplasma synoviae and Mycoplasma gallisepticum via recombinant Salmonella. Vaccine. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41518971/

[29] Guo Q, Che Z, Hu F et al. Chicken-derived Lactobacillus strains alleviate Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection and improve growth performance in broilers. Poult Sci. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42314294/

[30] Yan Y, Liao L, Fan Y et al. Evaluation and Analysis of the Efficacy of Four Chinese Herbal Medicines and Formulations in Preventing and Treating Mycoplasma gallisepticum Infection in Chickens. Vet J. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42191062/

[31] Guan M, Zhang TN, Lu C et al. Remarkable Inhibition Efficacy of a Compound Plant Essential Oil Disinfectant Against Bacteria, Viruses, and Mycoplasmas. Vet Sci. 2025. URL

[32] Yao Y, Hu R, Li Y et al. Scutellaria baicalensis exosome-like nanoparticles combat lung infection caused by Mycoplasma gallisepticum by regulating calcium homeostasis. J Anim Sci Biotechnol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42083016/

[33] Xu F, Bao L, Yao Y et al. Mechanism of Scutellaria baicalensis extracellular vesicles in attenuating Mycoplasma gallisepticum-induced inflammation via TRPC1 - STIM1/ORAI1 channel inhibition. Poult Sci. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41905072/