Swine Farrowing Management: Preparing for a Successful Farrowing

Farrowing management covers the period from sow entry into the farrowing area through piglet weaning, with the primary goals of minimizing stillbirths, maximizing liveborn piglet viability, and reducing preweaning mortality. This article provides a practical farrowing management plan for farmers, farm employees, veterinarians, and advisers, focusing on pre-farrowing preparation, the farrowing process itself, and postpartum care. The guidance draws on peer-reviewed research and official animal health resources to support concrete management decisions.

At a Glance: Farrowing Management Priorities

Understanding the Farrowing Process

Farrowing in sows occurs in three distinct stages. The first stage involves preparatory behavior and cervical dilation, during which the sow becomes restless and may exhibit nest-building activity. The second stage is active piglet expulsion, and the third stage is placental expulsion. Understanding these stages helps farm staff recognize normal progress and identify when intervention is needed.

Research on sow behavior during parturition indicates that free farrowing systems allow sows greater freedom of movement and enable expression of natural behaviors, particularly nest-building, which is hormonally driven and peaks shortly before parturition. Adequate provision of diverse nesting materials facilitates nest-building, optimizes endocrine preparation for farrowing, and can shorten farrowing duration, improving piglet vitality and colostrum intake. However, dystocia incidence remains comparable between free farrowing and crated systems, indicating that careful management is still required regardless of housing choice.

Genetic selection has resulted in a considerable increase in litter size, paralleled by an increase in farrowing duration and perinatal mortality. Compromised farrowing can be related to nutritional management, housing conditions, and handling of periparturient sows. Increased farrowing duration and increased perinatal mortality may to some extent be inevitably related to trends in pig production, but they can be improved by nutritional measures, housing conditions, and farrowing management.

Pre-Farrowing Preparation

Sow Entry and Acclimation to the Farrowing Area

Sows should enter the farrowing area with enough time to acclimate to their new surroundings before parturition begins. The transition from gestation housing to the farrowing environment is a significant change that can affect sow stress levels and subsequent farrowing performance. Loose farrowing systems are part of the answer to the challenges around farrowing, although current systems do not perform consistently across all conditions.

When moving sows, use low-stress handling techniques. Rough handling during this period can elevate stress hormones and potentially interfere with the hormonal cascade that initiates farrowing. The opportunity to express natural behaviors and minimize stress around farrowing can further optimize farrowing conditions and reduce piglet mortality.

Crate Fit and Space Assessment

Crate fit is a significant predictor of farrowing and lactation outcomes. Research examining data from over 1,100 sows found that sows with sufficient space had two to three times reduced risk of poor outcomes compared to restrictive crates relative to sow dimensions. Crate fit was more informative than parity for predicting farrowing and lactation outcomes.

Assess each sow against the crate dimensions before entry. A sow that appears cramped or unable to lie down and rise comfortably should be moved to a larger pen if available. First-parity gilts may require different space considerations than mature sows. The farrowing environment should support the sow's physiology of farrowing, nursing, and maternal behavior.

Nutrition and Feeding Management

Transition diets can be formulated to support calcium homeostasis and alleviate constipation in the days before farrowing. Dietary fiber plays a critical role in sow nutrition, with high-fiber diets associated with better satiety, reduced constipation, and enhanced gastrointestinal health. Soluble fibers such as pectin dissolve in water and can form gels, influencing fermentation processes in the gut, while insoluble fibers like cellulose contribute to fecal bulk and promote intestinal motility.

Feed refusal in the pre-farrowing period is a warning sign. Research on predictors of poor outcomes in the farrowing house found that normal appetite compared to feed refusals reduced the risk of farrowing failure and removals. Sows that refuse feed in the days before farrowing should be flagged for closer monitoring during parturition.

Consider the following feeding approach:

• Provide a transition diet starting approximately 5 to 7 days before expected farrowing date
• Monitor daily feed intake and record any refusals
• Ensure fresh, clean water is always available
• Adjust fiber content to maintain normal fecal consistency
• Reduce feed amount on the expected farrowing day according to your veterinarian's guidance

Biosecurity Protocols for the Farrowing Area

Biosecurity measures applied during the farrowing and suckling period are among the highest-scoring biosecurity practices on farms, according to research from commercial pig operations. Maintaining stringent biosecurity is crucial for disease control, particularly for pathogens that can persist in the environment.

Senecavirus A, for example, is a non-enveloped virus with the ability to adapt to the environment, and its stability allows it to persist on farms post-outbreak. Research on farms that experienced Senecavirus A outbreaks found viral RNA in fecal samples from the farrowing phase at the highest positivity rate, even in the absence of clinical signs. This finding underscores the importance of maintaining biosecurity measures in the farrowing area even when no disease is apparent.

Implement these biosecurity practices:

• Clean and disinfect farrowing pens between groups
• Use dedicated boots and coveralls for farrowing area entry
• Control visitor access to the farrowing area
• Follow a rodent and pest control program
• Monitor for vesicular lesions or other unusual signs and report to your veterinarian immediately

The Farrowing Environment

Housing System Options

The pig industry is increasingly transitioning from traditional farrowing crates to free farrowing systems, driven by growing concerns for animal welfare and regulatory pressures to enhance sow well-being. Free farrowing systems allow sows greater freedom of movement and enable expression of natural behaviors, particularly nest-building.

Research comparing farrowing pen layouts found that pen design can influence piglet performance. In a study of 546 sows and 9,123 piglets monitored across 36 lactation cycles, the offset farrowing pen had a lower percent of stillborns compared to the standard layout. No significant differences were observed between the diagonal crate and the other treatments. When evaluating sows with high mortality, the offset and standard treatments had a lower percent of overlays.

The old-fashioned farrowing crate is considered outdated in terms of welfare from the public's perspective and fails to provide the environment that the sow needs to support her physiology of farrowing, nursing, and maternal behavior. Providing the sow with a loose housing system adequate in space and nesting material, along with reasonable chance for isolation, can be considered fundamental for successful farrowing of the hyperprolific sow.

Nesting Material and Behavioral Needs

Adequate provision of diverse nesting materials facilitates nest-building behavior, which is hormonally driven and peaks shortly before parturition. Free farrowing systems are associated with lower maternal stress, higher endogenous oxytocin, and more natural behavioral expression, potentially influencing parturition kinetics.

Provide suitable nesting material such as straw, sawdust, or other approved substrates. The material should allow the sow to perform natural rooting and nest-building behaviors. Monitor sow behavior in the hours before farrowing, as increased restlessness and nest-building activity indicate approaching parturition.

Thermal Environment

Season affects piglet performance and mortality. Research on farrowing pen design found that a higher percent of overlays were observed in autumn and summer compared to other seasons. Piglets from first-parity sows had lower average daily gain than those from higher-parity sows.

Maintain appropriate temperatures for both sow and piglets. The sow's thermal comfort zone differs from that of newborn piglets, so provide a creep area for piglets with supplemental heat. Monitor room temperature and adjust ventilation to prevent heat stress in the sow while maintaining piglet comfort.

Monitoring the Farrowing Process

Key Indicators for Farrowing Progress

Key indicators for monitoring farrowing include piglet birth intervals, placental expulsion timing, litter-level meconium scoring, umbilical cord integrity, and maternal physiological markers such as progesterone. These indicators help farm staff identify normal progress and detect problems early.

Normal piglet birth intervals typically range from 10 to 20 minutes, though this can vary. Prolonged intervals between piglets may indicate dystocia and warrant intervention. Placental expulsion patterns offer additional insights, with sows expelling the first placenta before or alongside the last piglet, or with more than four placental parts, exhibiting prolonged farrowing.

Farrowing Duration and Its Implications

Increased litter size has been accompanied by increased farrowing duration and perinatal mortality. Prolonged farrowing will shorten the window for suckling colostrum and reduce the chances for high-quality colostrum intake. Studies agree that increasing litter sizes concomitantly resulted in decreased piglet birth weight and increased within-litter birth weight variations.

Birth weight is one of the critical factors affecting the prognosis of colostrum intake, and piglet growth, welfare, and survival. Litters of uneven birth weight distribution will suffer and lead to increased piglet mortality before weaning.

When to Intervene

Excessive or routine administration of exogenous uterotonics is discouraged due to the risk of overly strong contractions, increased stillbirths, and reduced colostrum intake. Only administer oxytocin or other uterotonics under veterinary direction and with clear indications.

Intervention is warranted when:

• No piglet is delivered for more than 30 to 45 minutes after the previous piglet
• The sow shows signs of distress or exhaustion
• Meconium staining is excessive, indicating fetal distress
• The sow has not completed farrowing within 5 to 6 hours of active straining

Contact your veterinarian for guidance on when to intervene and what interventions are appropriate for your herd.

Postpartum Sow Care

Immediate Post-Farrowing Assessment

After the last piglet is delivered, assess the sow for completeness of placental expulsion. Sows expelling the first placenta before or alongside the last piglet, or with more than four placental parts, may exhibit prolonged farrowing and require closer monitoring.

Monitor the sow for:

• Appetite and water intake
• Vaginal discharge color and amount
• Body temperature
• Udder condition and milk letdown
• General demeanor and activity level

Postpartum hemorrhage is a well-recognized and potentially life-threatening complication in sows. A case report documented primary postpartum hemorrhage in a second parity sow managed in a free-farrowing system, where the sow showed severe hemorrhagic vaginal discharge after the farrowing process. The case was managed with telemedical consultation, and intramuscular administration of oxytocin was recommended to stimulate uterine contractions and control the hemorrhage. The bloody vaginal discharge stopped within 15 minutes after oxytocin administration.

If you observe severe hemorrhagic vaginal discharge, contact your veterinarian immediately. Do not attempt manual palpation of the birth canal when bleeding is severe, as this can worsen the condition.

Sow Appetite and Nutrition

Feed refusal is a significant predictor of poor outcomes in the farrowing house. Research found that normal appetite compared to feed refusals reduced the risk of farrowing failure and removals. Monitor sow feed intake carefully in the days following farrowing.

Lactation feed efficiency involves a complex system of traits, including daily lactation feed intake, daily sow weight balance, daily litter weight gain, daily back fat thickness balance, and sow metabolic body weight. Management practices that support adequate feed intake during lactation help maintain sow body condition and support the next reproductive cycle.

Insulin-like growth factor 1 driven recovery from energy losses during lactation appears critical for supporting follicle development, the viability of oocytes and embryos, and eventually litter uniformity. Feeding strategies that minimize sow body reserve loss during lactation can positively affect the next litter.

Locomotion and Mobility

Locomotion score is a significant predictor of poor outcomes in the farrowing house. Sows with good locomotion scores have reduced risk of poor farrowing and lactation outcomes. Assess each sow's ability to stand and move comfortably after farrowing.

Poor locomotion can result from:

• Pre-existing lameness or hoof problems
• Injuries sustained during farrowing
• Slippery flooring in the farrowing pen
• Metabolic conditions affecting muscle function

Sows with locomotion problems may have difficulty accessing feed and water, which can affect milk production and piglet growth. Address mobility issues promptly and consult your veterinarian for diagnosis and treatment.

Piglet Management After Birth

Colostrum Intake

Ensuring adequate colostrum intake for all piglets born alive is essential, particularly in large litters. Management strategies such as split suckling and cross-fostering are necessary to ensure proper colostrum intake for all piglets in a large litter.

Management routines during parturition, such as drying and moving piglets to the udder, can help ensure colostrum intake. Feeding an energy source to piglets after birth may be a beneficial management tool with large litters.

Colostrum provides:

• Passive immunity through immunoglobulins
• Energy for thermoregulation
• Growth factors for intestinal development

Piglets that fail to receive adequate colostrum within the first 6 to 12 hours after birth have reduced survival prospects and growth potential.

Split Suckling

Split suckling involves removing the strongest piglets from the sow temporarily to allow smaller or weaker piglets access to the udder without competition. This technique is particularly useful for large litters where not all piglets can nurse simultaneously.

Implement split suckling by:

• Removing the largest or most vigorous piglets to a warm, clean area
• Allowing smaller piglets to nurse for 30 to 60 minutes
• Rotating piglets so all have access to colostrum
• Returning removed piglets to the sow

This approach ensures that all piglets receive colostrum, beyond the most competitive ones.

Cross-Fostering

Cross-fostering involves moving piglets between sows to equalize litter sizes and birth weights. Research found that cross-fostering increased piglet weight at day 21 and number of piglets weaned. This practice helps manage large litters and uneven birth weight distributions.

Follow these cross-fostering guidelines:

• Perform cross-fostering within 24 to 48 hours after birth
• Match piglet size and age when moving between litters
• Ensure foster sows have adequate milk production
• Monitor fostered piglets for acceptance and nursing success
• Record all movements for health and performance tracking

Managing Large Litters

Increasing litter size requires additional attention to the mammary gland and its ability to provide sufficient nursing for the growing litter. Hyperprolific sows face specific challenges related to mammary development and nursing capacity.

As piglets born alive increased from 11 or fewer to 16 or more, the probability of a sow having a piglet death during early and mid-lactation increased. Management practices to reduce preweaning mortality need to account for parity, number of piglets born alive, number of stillborn piglets, gestation length, and season.

For large litters, consider:

• Split suckling to ensure colostrum intake
• Cross-fostering to equalize litter sizes
• Supplemental milk or milk replacer under veterinary guidance
• Increased monitoring frequency for the first 48 hours after birth

Records and Measurements

Essential Farrowing Records

Accurate records are essential for evaluating farrowing management and identifying areas for improvement. Maintain the following records for each sow:

Farrowing Rate and Herd Performance

Farrowing rate is a key herd performance indicator. Research on commercial sow herds classified herds with an average farrowing rate below 85 percent as low farrowing rate herds and those at or above 85 percent as good farrowing rate herds. Low farrowing rate herds were more likely to use certain management practices, including moving boars into gilt pens for estrus detection, breeding a high proportion of sows by artificial insemination only, and starting heat detection 3 days post-weaning.

Track farrowing rate monthly and investigate any decline. Compare your herd's performance to regional or national benchmarks where available.

Sow Removal and Longevity

The period around farrowing has the highest risk for sow health issues, and monitoring of sows during this time will improve both welfare and productivity. Poor outcomes reflect low performance during the farrowing and lactation periods and unanticipated sow removals.

Age at first farrowing and herd management affect long-term productivity of sows. Track sow removal reasons and parity distribution to identify patterns that may indicate management issues.

Common Failure Patterns in Farrowing Management

Prolonged Farrowing

Prolonged farrowing is a common problem, particularly in hyperprolific sows. Increased farrowing duration is associated with increased perinatal mortality. Sows with prolonged farrowing have reduced colostrum quality and piglets have reduced opportunity for colostrum intake.

Prevention strategies include:

• Maintaining sow comfort and minimizing stress
• Providing adequate fiber in transition diets
• Ensuring appropriate calcium status
• Monitoring birth intervals and intervening when appropriate

High Preweaning Mortality

Preweaning piglet mortality is a significant concern in swine production, influenced by complex interactions involving sow, piglet, environmental, and management factors. While crushing by the sow may be the ultimate cause of piglet mortality, many factors influence the outcome, including parity, thermal stress, and animal housing systems.

Research on preweaning mortality found that the probability of a sow having a piglet death during early, mid, and late lactation was 36.9, 27.0, and 15.4 percent, respectively. Management practices to reduce preweaning mortality need to account for parity, number of piglets born alive, number of stillborn piglets, gestation length, and season.

Feed Refusal and Metabolic Problems

Feed refusal in the periparturient period is a significant risk factor for poor outcomes. Sows that refuse feed have higher risk of farrowing failure and removal from the herd. Address feed refusal promptly by:

• Checking water availability and quality
• Evaluating feed palatability and freshness
• Assessing sow comfort and environmental conditions
• Consulting your veterinarian if feed refusal persists

Dystocia and Stillbirths

Dystocia incidence remains comparable between free farrowing and crated systems, indicating that careful management is still required regardless of housing choice. Stillbirths increase with increasing litter size and decreasing gestation length.

Research found that as stillborn piglets increased from 0 to 3 or more, the probability of a sow having a piglet death during early, mid, and late lactation increased. Sows with stillbirths require closer monitoring during the subsequent lactation period.

Welfare and Safety Considerations

Sow Welfare During Farrowing

Parturition is known to be highly painful in many mammalian species, but the understanding of parturient pain in sows is limited. Pain can be detrimental to animal wellbeing, so it is vital for it to be reliably detected and managed in a way that improves both sow and piglet health and welfare.

Grimace scales have been developed as a method for pain detection and quantification in animals via observations of facial expression changes in response to painful stimuli. Grimace scoring was found to be an effective, simple, and feasible method of pain assessment in a number of domestic species, and its recent application to farrowing is a promising development in the understanding and management of sow welfare during parturition.

Monitor sows for signs of pain or distress during and after farrowing, including:

• Facial expression changes consistent with pain
• Reluctance to stand or move
• Reduced appetite
• Abnormal posture
• Vocalization

Worker Safety in the Farrowing Area

Working with sows during farrowing presents specific safety risks. Sows can be aggressive, particularly when protecting piglets. Implement these safety practices:

• Use proper handling equipment and techniques
• Maintain escape routes in farrowing pens
• Never work alone with a sow showing aggressive behavior
• Use appropriate personal protective equipment
• Train all staff in safe sow handling

Food Safety and Antimicrobial Stewardship

Salmonella enterica is a major foodborne pathogen, with pigs and pig-derived products serving as key transmission sources of human infection. Research applying whole-genome sequencing to investigate Salmonella transmission throughout the pig growing process found that different Salmonella serovars spread via distinct transmission routes but share common antimicrobial resistance patterns, emphasizing the need for targeted control measures across the pig production chain.

Antimicrobial resistance is a concern in swine production. Research on pig farms found that most farms used antibiotics for preventive or curative purposes, and major Salmonella serovars exhibited similar multidrug resistance to ampicillin, tetracycline, and sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim. Work with your veterinarian to implement antimicrobial stewardship practices and reduce the public health risks associated with antimicrobial-resistant pathogens.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration provides animal and veterinary resources related to antimicrobial use and food safety. Consult these resources and your veterinarian for guidance on responsible antimicrobial use in your operation.

Professional Escalation Criteria

Contact your veterinarian immediately when you observe:

• Severe hemorrhagic vaginal discharge after farrowing
• Signs of systemic illness, including fever, lethargy, or inappetence
• Dystocia that does not resolve with appropriate intervention
• Retained placentas beyond expected timing
• Vesicular lesions or other unusual skin conditions
• Multiple sows with similar clinical signs, suggesting a herd problem
• Piglet mortality above expected levels for your herd

Early veterinary involvement can prevent minor problems from becoming major health and welfare issues. Maintain a working relationship with your veterinarian and establish clear protocols for when to call for assistance.

Frequently Asked Questions

When should sows be moved into the farrowing area?

Sows should be moved into the farrowing area with enough time to acclimate to their new surroundings before parturition begins, typically 3 to 7 days before the expected farrowing date. This allows the sow to adjust to the new environment and reduces stress around farrowing. The opportunity to express natural behaviors and minimize stress around farrowing can optimize farrowing conditions and reduce piglet mortality.

What are the signs that farrowing is approaching?

Signs of approaching farrowing include nest-building behavior, restlessness, vulvar swelling, udder development, and changes in behavior. Nest-building is hormonally driven and peaks shortly before parturition. Adequate provision of diverse nesting materials facilitates nest-building and optimizes endocrine preparation for farrowing. Monitor sows closely when these signs appear and increase observation frequency.

How long should farrowing take?

Farrowing duration varies with litter size and individual sow factors. Increased litter size has been accompanied by increased farrowing duration. Monitor piglet birth intervals and placental expulsion timing to assess progress. Prolonged farrowing will shorten the window for suckling colostrum and reduce the chances for high-quality colostrum intake. Contact your veterinarian if farrowing appears prolonged or if birth intervals exceed normal ranges for your herd.

What should I do if a sow has a prolonged birth interval?

If no piglet is delivered for more than 30 to 45 minutes after the previous piglet, assess the sow for signs of distress or exhaustion. Excessive or routine administration of exogenous uterotonics is discouraged due to the risk of overly strong contractions, increased stillbirths, and reduced colostrum intake. Contact your veterinarian for guidance on when to intervene and what interventions are appropriate.

How can I ensure all piglets get colostrum in a large litter?

Management strategies such as split suckling and cross-fostering are necessary to ensure proper colostrum intake for all piglets born alive in a large litter. Split suckling involves removing the strongest piglets temporarily to allow smaller piglets access to the udder. Cross-fostering involves moving piglets between sows to equalize litter sizes and birth weights. Management routines during parturition, such as drying and moving piglets to the udder, can also help ensure colostrum intake.

What are the key predictors of poor farrowing outcomes?

Research has identified several predictors of poor outcomes in the farrowing house, including feed refusal, crate fit, locomotion score, and respiration rate. Normal appetite compared to feed refusals reduced the risk of farrowing failure and removals. Sows with sufficient space had two to three times reduced risk of poor outcomes compared to restrictive crates relative to sow dimensions. Monitor these factors for each sow and intervene early when problems are identified.

How does season affect farrowing and piglet performance?

Season affects piglet performance and mortality. Research found that a higher percent of overlays were observed in autumn and summer compared to other seasons. Insemination season affected stillborn piglets and average weaning piglet birth weight, while farrowing season influenced average weaning piglet birth weight and number of piglets weaned. Adjust management practices seasonally to address thermal stress and other seasonal challenges.

What biosecurity measures are most important in the farrowing area?

Biosecurity measures applied during the farrowing and suckling period are among the highest-scoring biosecurity practices on farms. Maintain stringent biosecurity to control pathogens that can persist in the environment, such as Senecavirus A, which can remain on farms post-outbreak due to its environmental stability. Clean and disinfect farrowing pens between groups, use dedicated boots and coveralls for farrowing area entry, control visitor access, and monitor for unusual signs.

Related Farming Guides

• Farrowing House Preparation and Sow Care
• Sheep Lambing Management: Preparation, Assistance, and Post-Lambing Care
• Lambing Preparation Checklist
• Swine Parasite Monitoring and Control
• Goat Kidding Management and Care

References and Further Reading

• FAO Animal Production and Health. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
• Animal Health and Welfare. USDA National Agricultural Library.
• Animal and Veterinary Resources. U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
• Animal Health and Welfare. World Organisation for Animal Health.
• Animal Production and Protection. USDA Agricultural Research Service.
• Sow behaviour, parturition process and management in free farrowing systems.. Porcine health management, 2026.
• Physiology and management of the peri-parturient sow in the context of changing production conditions.. Reproduction in domestic animals = Zuchthygiene, 2023.
• Management factors associated with farrowing rate in commercial sow herds in Ontario.. The Canadian veterinary journal = La revue veterinaire canadienne, 2010.
• Coping with large litters: management effects on welfare and nursing capacity of the sow.. Journal of animal science and technology, 2021.
• A Review of Assessment of Sow Pain During Farrowing Using Grimace Scores.. Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, 2025.
• Coping with large litters: the management of neonatal piglets and sow reproduction.. Journal of animal science and technology, 2021.
• Improving sow welfare and outcomes in the farrowing house by identifying early indicators from pre-farrowing assessment.. Journal of animal science, 2022.
• Impacts of Farrowing Pen Design, Season, and Sow Parity on Litter Performance and Piglet Mortality.. Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, 2024.
• Serological and molecular evaluation of Senecavirus A (SVA) in pigs from farrow-to-finish farms in Minas Gerais, Brazil.. 2026.
• Telemedical management of severe postpartum hemorrhagic vaginal discharge in a sow - a case report.. 2026.
• Distinct transmission routes of Salmonella enterica serovars during pig growth on farms.. 2026.
• Dietary supplementation with microencapsulated organic acids and essential oils improves sow productivity and nursery pig performance under commercial field conditions.. 2026.
• Practices and impact of biosecurity on pig performance in the West Region of Cameroon.. 2026.
• Unlocking the nutritional benefits of dietary fiber in sow feed: a short review.. 2026.
• Management of The Sow and Litter in Late Pregnancy and Lactation in Relation to Piglet Survival and Growth. Bioscientifica Proceedings, 2020.
• Analysis of the causal structure of traits involved in sow lactation feed efficiency. Genetics Selection Evolution, 2022.
• Five risk factors and their interactions of probability for a sow in breeding herds having a piglet death during days 0-1, 2-8 and 9-28 days of lactation. Porcine Health Management, 2021.
• Genetic and non-genetic determinants of farrowing and lactation traits in multiparous sows under intensive management.. Archives Animal Breeding, 2026.
• A survey of sow management at farrowing in the UK. Animal Welfare, 2016.
• Management factors associated with farrowing rate in commercial sow herds in Ontario. Canadian Veterinary Journal, 2010.
• Effect of age at first farrowing and herd management on long-term productivity of sows. Livestock Production Science, 1998.
• Effects of different farrowing environments on the behavior of sows and piglets. Animals, 2020.

This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.