Swine Breeding Management: From Sow Condition to Mating Protocols

Breeding management determines the number of pigs weaned per mated female per year, the efficiency of the farrowing house, and the long-term productivity of the sow herd. This article outlines a practical workflow for swine breeding management, covering sow body condition scoring, estrus detection, and mating strategies. The content is intended for farmers, farm employees, veterinarians, advisers, students, and farm planners who need concrete management decisions supported by production records and observable animal responses.

At a Glance

The table below summarizes the core breeding management decisions covered in this article, the primary observations needed to make each decision, and the records that support ongoing improvement.

Breeding Herd Objectives and Productivity Measures

The breeding herd exists to produce a predictable and consistent supply of high quality pigs. To achieve this objective, an appropriate number of females need to be mated in each breeding week and they should maintain their pregnancy and deliver large litters. Many factors can impact achievement of optimal sow productivity, particularly breeding management. Most matings will involve artificial insemination, and successful artificial insemination requires deposition into the cervix or beyond of sufficient viable high quality sperm at an appropriate time relative to ovulation. This is facilitated by improved knowledge of the sow's ovarian function prior to and during her estrous period. Realization of the importance of establishing an adequate sperm reservoir in the oviduct at an appropriate time relative to ovulation has led to advances in the management of artificial insemination. The future of artificial insemination will likely involve insemination of single doses of high genetic merit semen, potentially having a reduced sperm concentration which is made possible by knowledge of the effect of site of sperm deposition on sow fertility. In particular, knowledge of when a sow is likely to ovulate during a natural or induced estrous period will prove invaluable in the maintenance of herd productivity. These points are detailed in a review of breeding management options and the control of estrus and ovulation on sow herd reproductive performance (Advances in Breeding Management and Use of Ovulation Induction for Fixed-time AI).

Productivity outcomes in the breeding herd are associated with specific management factors. A database containing 24 key production measurements was created by abstracting data files of 673 U.S. farms which participated in the PigCHAMP data-share program in 1995. Summary statistics for breeding-herd performance data were presented for the Cornbelt and the South or Eastern regions. Eight models were built to assess the association between production system, operation management factors and productivity outcomes. Lactation length, percentage of multiple matings, parity of culled sows, percent gilts in the breeding-female inventory, and female culling rate were the management factors identified as having important associations with productivity outcomes. For example, shorter lactation length, higher percentage of multiple matings, and lower culling rate were associated with more pigs weaned per mated female per year. In addition, a lower percentage of gilts in the breeding-female inventory and a higher percentage of multiple matings were associated with fewer average non-productive female days. Producers should change their management systems to decrease lactation length, the percentage of gilts in the breeding-female inventory, and female culling rate, and increase percentage of multiple matings in order to improve breeding-herd productivity on swine farms (Management factors associated with swine breeding-herd productivity in the United States).

These findings give the farm team a clear set of targets. The breeding management workflow should aim to shorten the weaning to service interval, use multiple matings for each estrus period, keep the gilt pool at a level that supports herd replacement without inflating non-productive days, and cull females for defined reasons instead of as a default response to a single failed mating.

Sow Body Condition Scoring and Nutritional Management

Body condition scoring is a critical welfare indicator and a practical tool for breeding decisions. A pig welfare assessment protocol suitable for smallholder settings in low-to-middle income countries identified body condition score as one of five critical indicators in urgent need of immediate intervention to improve pig welfare when at least one of these measures has a zero score. The critical indicators are access to water, access to feed, body condition score, space allowance, and negative social behaviour (Framing a pig welfare assessment protocol suitable for smallholder settings in low-to-middle income countries). While that protocol was designed for smallholder systems, the principle that body condition is a critical indicator applies across production settings. A sow that is too thin or too fat at service will have different fertility outcomes and different risks during lactation.

Body condition scoring should be performed at defined points in the reproductive cycle. The most useful points are at weaning, at service, and at pregnancy confirmation. A visual score and, where available, a backfat measurement should be recorded for each female. The scoring system should be consistent across the people who perform it. Training all staff to use the same scale reduces variation in the records and makes the data useful for decisions.

Nutritional management interacts with body condition. Dietary fiber is a critical nutrient in sow diet and was addressed in several studies in the past decades. It plays a key role in improving digestive health, supporting metabolic functions, and enhancing the overall well-being of sows. Fiber, a plant-based feed ingredient, is classified into soluble and insoluble fibers. Soluble fibers, such as pectin, dissolve in water and can form gels, influencing the fermentation process in the gut. Insoluble fibers, like cellulose, do not dissolve in water and contribute to the bulk of fecal matter, promoting intestinal motility. In sow nutrition, dietary fiber has been shown to offer several benefits. High-fiber diets are associated with better satiety which helps to reduce constipation and support the digestive tract by enhancing gastrointestinal health. Despite the positive evidence, the practical application of fiber in sow nutrition has neither been clearly defined, nor have specific recommendations been made. The lack of information about fiber requirements is due to the insufficient characterization of its components in available ingredients (Unlocking the nutritional benefits of dietary fiber in sow feed: a short review). For the breeding manager, this means that fiber level should be considered as part of the overall feeding strategy, but specific recommendations must come from the nutritionist who knows the ingredient profile of the farm.

Protein level in gestation and lactation diets also affects sow metabolism and reproductive performance. Soybean meal is a primary protein source in swine diets, but partial replacement with crystalline amino acids is commonly used to reduce dietary protein. Adequate dietary protein and energy are essential to support fetal development, milk production, and litter growth. However, crystalline amino acids are absorbed more rapidly than amino acids from intact protein, which may limit protein synthesis due to a lack of amino acid availability. An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that feeding sows diets based primarily on corn, soybean meal, and no crystalline amino acids will result in improved reproductive performance and immunity of sows compared with sows fed diets with less soybean meal and more corn and crystalline amino acids. Nitrogen excretion in feces and urine, absorbed nitrogen, and retained nitrogen in grams per day were greater in gestating sows fed the high-protein diet compared with sows fed the low-protein diet. Rectal temperature 24 hours after farrowing of sows fed the low-protein diet was greater compared with sows fed the high-protein diet. Number of live-born and total born pigs was not different between treatments, but sows fed the high-protein diet tended to produce fewer mummified pigs than sows fed the low-protein diet. Malondialdehyde was greater in sows fed the low-protein diet, but serum glutathione peroxidase and white blood cell count were greater in sows fed the high-protein diet. Colostrum immunoglobulin G and concentrations of fat, protein, urea nitrogen, lactose, and immunoglobulin G were greater in milk from sows fed the high-protein diet than in milk from sows fed the low-protein diet. Feeding a low-protein diet to gestating sows decreased daily nitrogen retention (Reducing dietary crude protein for gestating and lactating sows reduces daily nitrogen retention, but reproductive performance is not impacted by diet protein concentration). The practical implication is that diet formulation decisions should be made with the nutritionist and reviewed when body condition scores drift outside the target range.

Body Condition Scoring Procedure

Implement a body condition scoring procedure that is repeatable and recorded. The steps below provide a practical workflow.

1. Score each female at weaning, at service, and at pregnancy confirmation.
2. Use a 1 to 5 scale where 1 is emaciated and 5 is obese. Train all staff on the same visual anchors.
3. Measure backfat at the P2 position where ultrasound equipment is available. Record the value alongside the visual score.
4. Compare the current score to the target range for the parity and stage of production.
5. Adjust feed allocation for thin or fat females at the next feeding, following the nutrition plan.
6. Escalate to the veterinarian or nutritionist when more than a defined percentage of the herd falls outside the target range.

Replacement Gilt Management

Replacement gilts should be finally selected before 110 kg body weight and should have been stimulated to reach puberty by this time. Currently, the best method for achieving this is ad libitum feeding and the correct use of boar exposure. However, whether ad libitum feeding will always be the best feeding strategy remains to be seen. The impressive success of selection programs and the potential for the use of growth promoters and repartitioning agents in the feeder barn may require that future replacements be identified at an early stage and raised under a separate feeding regimen. To produce a large first litter, gilts should be bred at their second estrus. There is unlikely to be any further increase in litter size by delaying mating to third estrus. A major consideration when choosing when to breed replacements is the length of their productive life. For many farms, this may be maximized by delaying breeding until the sow is 120 to 130 kg body weight with a minimum backfat depth of 18 mm. For the producer who is able to exert control over lactation condition loss, however, breeding replacements at about 110 kg body weight with backfat depths of 14 to 16 mm should not adversely affect long-term performance. Although it is true that, under some conditions, the lean gilt may become a problem, it is equally true that her potential is as great as her fatter contemporaries. Whether this potential is realized is largely under the producer's control. Regarding the boar, nutritional management need not vary from that provided for gilts. However, if replacement boars are raised on-farm, it is of great importance that they be allowed to socially interact with other pigs. Failure to provide this opportunity will result in a boar with reduced libido (Management of replacement breeding animals).

The gilt pool should be managed as a separate group with its own feeding and boar exposure program. Gilts that are kept for breeding should be identified early, given adequate space, and exposed to a mature boar daily once they reach the target age and weight. The first observed estrus should be recorded but not bred. The second estrus is the target for first service. This approach supports a large first litter without delaying the start of productive life unnecessarily.

Gilt Selection and Puberty Stimulation Steps

1. Identify potential replacement gilts before they reach 110 kg body weight.
2. House selected gilts separately from the finishing group.
3. Provide ad libitum feeding or a defined gilt developer diet as directed by the nutritionist.
4. Begin daily boar exposure at the target age and weight for the genetic line.
5. Record the date of first observed estrus for each gilt.
6. Mate gilts at the second observed estrus.
7. Confirm that gilts meet the target body weight and backfat depth before first service.

Estrus Detection

Estrus detection is the foundation of breeding management. The mating management of pigs is conducted under a wide spectrum of management techniques because females are variously hand-mated, pen-mated, or artificially inseminated. Factors that may affect the onset of estrus when hand-mating are boar exposure, method of housing females after weaning, season, type of facilities, and parity. The expression of sexual behavior in both male and female pigs can be influenced by a variety of physiologic, psychological, and environmental factors. To optimize the efficiency of estrous detection, females should not receive boar stimuli just prior to estrous detection when either hand-mated or artificially inseminated. When females are pen-mated, management procedures need to be employed to prevent an excessive number of estrous females from accumulating, which leads to a decrease in boar fertility (Mating management).

The practical implication is that estrus detection should be a dedicated task, not an afterthought during feeding. Females should be checked at a consistent time each day, and boar exposure should be managed so that the detection period is not contaminated by prior boar contact. The standing response to back pressure in the presence of a boar is the primary sign of estrus. Secondary signs include vulvar swelling and reddening, increased activity, and mounting of other females.

Estrus Detection Workflow

1. Perform estrus detection at the same time each day.
2. Bring the detection boar to the females or move females to a detection area.
3. Allow direct contact between the boar and each female for a defined period.
4. Apply back pressure and observe for the standing response.
5. Record the date and time of first standing estrus for each female.
6. Schedule mating or insemination based on the onset of standing estrus.
7. Repeat detection daily until the female is no longer standing.

Technology for Estrus Detection

Traditional estrus detection methods are subjective and can be inaccurate. Newer approaches use sensor data and automated analysis. Detecting estrus in sows is vital for pig farming. Traditional methods are subjective and inaccurate. This research developed a multimodal feature fusion method using audio and thermal infrared image data. The Adaptive-PIG-OESTUS-CNN-ViT model achieved high accuracy, providing an efficient, objective, and non-destructive estrus detection method (APO-CViT: A Non-Destructive Estrus Detection Method for Breeding Pigs Based on Multimodal Feature Fusion). Another study proposed ECA-YOLO, an improved YOLOv11-based algorithm, for automated estrus detection in pigs using non-contact ocular analysis. The model integrates enhanced context-aware mechanisms to address challenges like short estrus duration and reliance on human expertise, improving detection accuracy under complex farming conditions. By leveraging advanced attention modules and adaptive training strategies, it achieves real-time performance for continuous monitoring. This approach supports efficient reproductive management in intensive pig farming systems (A Lightweight Model for Small-Target Pig Eye Detection in Automated Estrus Recognition).

These technologies are not yet standard on most farms, but they point to the direction of breeding management. The farm team should continue to record visual observations while evaluating whether automated systems fit the farm size and labor availability. The records from automated systems must be validated against pregnancy outcomes before they replace human observation.

Mating Strategies and Artificial Insemination

The objective of the breeding herd is the predictable and consistent production of high quality pigs. To achieve this objective, an appropriate number of females need to be mated in each breeding week and they should maintain their pregnancy and deliver large litters. Many factors can impact achievement of optimal sow productivity, particularly breeding management. Most matings will involve artificial insemination, and successful artificial insemination requires deposition into the cervix or beyond of sufficient viable high quality sperm at an appropriate time relative to ovulation. This is facilitated by improved knowledge of the sow's ovarian function prior to and during her estrous period. Realization of the importance of establishing an adequate sperm reservoir in the oviduct at an appropriate time relative to ovulation has led to advances in the management of artificial insemination. The future of artificial insemination will likely involve insemination of single doses of high genetic merit semen, potentially having a reduced sperm concentration which is made possible by knowledge of the effect of site of sperm deposition on sow fertility. In particular, knowledge of when a sow is likely to ovulate during a natural or induced estrous period will prove invaluable in the maintenance of herd productivity (Advances in Breeding Management and Use of Ovulation Induction for Fixed-time AI).

Multiple matings are associated with better productivity. The analysis of 673 U.S. farms found that a higher percentage of multiple matings was associated with more pigs weaned per mated female per year and fewer average non-productive female days (Management factors associated with swine breeding-herd productivity in the United States). The practical decision is to inseminate each female at least twice during standing estrus, with the timing based on the onset of standing heat.

Mating Protocol Decision Table

Artificial Insemination Procedure

1. Confirm the female is in standing estrus.
2. Clean the vulva area with a single-use towel.
3. Insert the insemination catheter following the manufacturer instructions.
4. Attach the semen dose and allow the female to draw it in naturally.
5. Stimulate the female with back pressure or boar exposure during insemination.
6. Record the time, semen batch, and the person who performed the insemination.
7. Keep the female quiet for a short period after insemination.

Weaning to Service Interval and Non-Productive Days

The weaning to service interval is a key measure of breeding herd efficiency. Shorter lactation length and lower culling rate were associated with more pigs weaned per mated female per year. A lower percentage of gilts in the breeding-female inventory and a higher percentage of multiple matings were associated with fewer average non-productive female days (Management factors associated with swine breeding-herd productivity in the United States). Non-productive days are days when a female is in the breeding herd but is neither pregnant nor lactating. These days add cost without adding output.

The farm team should track the weaning to service interval by parity group. Sows that return to estrus within the expected window are managed with the standard protocol. Sows that take longer to return to estrus should be examined for causes such as poor body condition, lameness, or uterine infection. Sows that fail to show estrus within a defined number of days after weaning should be evaluated by the veterinarian.

Weaning to Service Interval Record

Pregnancy Confirmation and Early Pregnancy Management

Accurate early detection of pregnancy status is a prerequisite for effective monitoring of fertility in pigs. In the early phase of pregnancy, because the embryo is small and in a free state, it is difficult to determine whether it is pregnant based on B-ultrasound examination. This calls for development of novel tools to accurately diagnose early pregnancy. Metabolomics reveal the metabolic status of cells, tissues and organisms. In one study, urinary metabolites in sows during early pregnancy were investigated. A total of 32 samples from 8 sows were collected at estrus and each phase of early pregnancy on days 9, 12, and 15 of gestation. Metabolites in urine samples from different sows obtained from gestation and estrus phases were analyzed via ultra-high performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. A total of 530 metabolites were identified with high confidence in all samples. Compared with samples collected during the estrus phase, 269 differential metabolites were found in samples obtained during early pregnancy. These metabolites included lipids and lipid-like molecules, organic acids and their derivatives, organic oxygen compounds, organoheterocyclic compounds, benzenoids, among others. These metabolites, such as choline and pregnanediol-3-glucuronide, play a very important role in pregnancy. They also regulate pregnancy in other animals. The results provide novel insights into the metabolic changes in the urine of sows in the early pregnancy phase. The level of different metabolites in urine can be used to diagnose pregnancy in sows. Understanding these metabolic changes is helpful for better management of pregnant sows (Urinary Metabolomics Revealed the Biological Characteristics Associated with Early Pregnancy in Pigs).

For most farms, the practical method of pregnancy confirmation is observation for non-return to estrus followed by ultrasound examination at the appropriate stage. The farm team should record the date of mating and the date of pregnancy confirmation for each female. Females that return to estrus after mating should be re-bred or culled according to the farm protocol.

Pregnancy Confirmation Steps

1. Observe females for return to estrus from day 18 to day 24 after mating.
2. Perform ultrasound examination at the stage recommended by the equipment manufacturer and the veterinarian.
3. Record the pregnancy status for each female.
4. Move confirmed pregnant females to the gestation housing.
5. Re-breed females that return to estrus if they meet the body condition and parity criteria.
6. Cull females that fail to conceive after the defined number of services.

Sow Welfare During Farrowing and Breeding

Reproduction is one of the most important considerations for the livestock industry, presenting significant economic and animal health and welfare pressures for producers. Parturition, the process of giving birth, is known to be highly painful in many mammalian species, but the understanding of parturient pain in sows is limited. Farrowing, the process of parturition in pigs, is understudied compared to other livestock species, with very little research available specifically regarding pain. Pain can be detrimental to animal wellbeing, hence, it is vital for it to be reliably detected and managed in such a way that improves both sow and piglet health and welfare. Grimace scales have been developed as a method for pain detection and quantification in animals via observations of facial expression changes in response to painful stimuli. This presents a unique opportunity for improved pain assessment during farrowing, increasing the current understanding of farrowing dynamics and potentially enhancing farrowing management decisions to prioritise sow welfare. Grimace scoring was found to be an effective, simple and feasible method of pain assessment in a number of domestic species, and its recent application to farrowing is a promising development in the understanding and management of sow welfare during parturition (A Review of Assessment of Sow Pain During Farrowing Using Grimace Scores).

The breeding manager should be alert to signs of pain or distress in sows around farrowing. A sow that shows severe hemorrhagic vaginal discharge after farrowing requires immediate veterinary attention. A case report described a primary postpartum hemorrhage in a second parity sow managed in a free-farrowing system with the support of telemedicine. A 16 months old Large White sow showed severe hemorrhagic vaginal discharge after the farrowing process. A thorough case history and visual examination of the animal were conducted using telemedical technique prior to treatment. Farrowing began at 14:00 on a Saturday without hormonal induction, and the sow delivered eight live-born piglets by 16:30 without intervention. Overnight, no observations were made. At 04:30 the following morning, the sow was found with nine live-born piglets and one stillborn. During morning feeding, the farmer observed a large amount of blood on the pen walls and severe hemorrhagic vaginal discharge and contacted the veterinarian, initiating a telemedical consultation. Examination revealed a normal appetite, a body temperature of 38.4 degrees Celsius, firm faeces without visible blood, and no external injuries to the tail, vulva, or vagina. No signs of ongoing labour were observed. Manual palpation of the birth canal was avoided due to the severity of bleeding. Transabdominal ultrasonography revealed no presence of retained piglets. Telemedical evaluation indicated pallor, and the final diagnosis of uterine bleeding was made. Intramuscular administration of 30 IU oxytocin was recommended to stimulate uterine contractions and control the hemorrhage. During the follow up consultation one hour later, the farmer reported that the bloody vaginal discharge stopped within 15 minutes after oxytocin administration. This case documents primary postpartum hemorrhage (Telemedical management of severe postpartum hemorrhagic vaginal discharge in a sow - a case report). The escalation criterion is clear: any sow with severe hemorrhagic vaginal discharge after farrowing should be examined by a veterinarian without delay.

Common Failure Patterns in Breeding Management

Management errors can affect all aspects of swine herd health. Inadequate feed, malfunctioning equipment, poor ventilation, low or high environmental temperature, inappropriate groupings, and rough handling all contribute to low productivity. Management errors can contribute to scours and pneumonia outbreaks, reproductive failure, accidental deaths and poor feed conversion (Swine management errors). The breeding manager should look for patterns in the records that point to management errors instead of individual animal problems.

Failure Pattern Table

Records and Measurement Systems

Records are the foundation of breeding management improvement. A web-based information system for management of swine breeding herd farm was described in the scientific literature (Web-based information system for management of swine breeding herd farm). The farm team should maintain records that allow them to calculate the key performance indicators for the breeding herd. These include pigs weaned per mated female per year, farrowing rate, litter size, weaning to service interval, and non-productive days.

The records should be reviewed at least monthly. The review should compare current performance to the target for each measure and to the previous period. When a measure drifts outside the target range, the farm team should investigate the cause and implement a corrective action. The corrective action should be recorded and reviewed at the next meeting.

Records to Maintain for Each Female

1. Female identification and parity
2. Date of entry into the breeding herd
3. Weaning date and lactation length
4. Date of first standing estrus after weaning
5. Mating dates and semen batch identification
6. Pregnancy confirmation date and result
7. Farrowing date and litter details
8. Culling date and reason

Biosecurity and Worker Safety in the Breeding Unit

Biosecurity is a shared responsibility across the farm. The breeding unit is the source of all pigs on the farm, so disease entry into the breeding herd has a long-lasting impact. The farm team should follow the biosecurity protocols defined for the farm, including shower in and out procedures, boot changes, and equipment cleaning. The USDA National Agricultural Library Animal Health and Welfare portal provides access to animal health information, and the World Organisation for Animal Health Animal Health and Welfare pages describe international standards for animal health and welfare. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration Animal and Veterinary pages cover regulations for animal drugs and feed. The FAO Animal Production and Health pages provide international guidance on animal production systems.

Worker safety in the breeding unit centers on safe handling of boars and sows. Boars can be aggressive, and sows with piglets can be protective. The farm team should use appropriate handling equipment and follow the farm safety protocols. Rough handling contributes to low productivity and should be avoided (Swine management errors).

Professional Escalation Criteria

The farm team should know when to call the veterinarian. The following situations require professional input:

1. A sow with severe hemorrhagic vaginal discharge after farrowing
2. A sow that fails to show estrus within the defined number of days after weaning
3. A group of sows with a farrowing rate below the target for more than one month
4. A group of sows with a weaning to service interval that is prolonged for more than one month
5. Any suspected disease outbreak in the breeding herd
6. A boar with reduced libido or poor semen quality

The veterinarian should also be involved in the design of the breeding management protocol, the interpretation of production records, and the review of culling decisions. The USDA Agricultural Research Service Animal Production and Protection pages describe research programs relevant to animal production and protection.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the target body condition score for sows at service?

The target body condition score depends on the scale used and the genetic line. The key point is that the score should be recorded at weaning, at service, and at pregnancy confirmation. A sow that is too thin at service may have a longer weaning to service interval and a smaller litter. A sow that is too fat may have difficulty farrowing and may eat less during lactation. The farm team should agree on a target range and adjust feed allocation to keep sows within that range.

How often should estrus detection be performed?

Estrus detection should be performed at least once daily at a consistent time. Females should not receive boar stimuli just prior to estrus detection when either hand-mated or artificially inseminated (Mating management). Some farms detect twice daily for gilts and for sows with a history of short estrus. The detection schedule should fit the farm labor and the mating protocol.

When should a gilt be bred for the first time?

Gilts should be bred at their second estrus to produce a large first litter. There is unlikely to be any further increase in litter size by delaying mating to third estrus (Management of replacement breeding animals). The gilt should also meet the target body weight and backfat depth for the farm.

How many times should a sow be inseminated during estrus?

A higher percentage of multiple matings was associated with more pigs weaned per mated female per year and fewer average non-productive female days (Management factors associated with swine breeding-herd productivity in the United States). The practical decision is to inseminate each female at least twice during standing estrus. Do not inseminate more than three times per estrus.

What is the weaning to service interval target?

The target weaning to service interval depends on the parity group and the farm history. The key is to track the interval by parity group and investigate any group that drifts outside the target. Shorter lactation length was associated with more pigs weaned per mated female per year (Management factors associated with swine breeding-herd productivity in the United States).

How is pregnancy confirmed?

Pregnancy is confirmed by observation for non-return to estrus followed by ultrasound examination at the appropriate stage. The farm team should record the mating date and the pregnancy confirmation date for each female. Females that return to estrus after mating should be re-bred or culled according to the farm protocol.

What should be done with a sow that returns to estrus after mating?

A sow that returns to estrus should be examined for body condition, lameness, and signs of uterine infection. If the sow meets the body condition and parity criteria, she can be re-bred at the next estrus. If she has failed to conceive after the defined number of services, she should be culled.

When should the veterinarian be called?

The veterinarian should be called for any sow with severe hemorrhagic vaginal discharge after farrowing, any sow that fails to show estrus within the defined number of days after weaning, any group of sows with a farrowing rate below the target for more than one month, and any suspected disease outbreak in the breeding herd.

Related Farming Guides

• Sow Body Condition and Feeding Management
• Sow Estrus Detection and Breeding Records
• Alpaca and Llama Reproduction: Breeding Soundness, Estrus Detection, and Parturition Management
• Sheep Body Condition Scoring
• Goat Body Condition Scoring

References and Further Reading

• FAO Animal Production and Health. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
• Animal Health and Welfare. USDA National Agricultural Library.
• Animal and Veterinary Resources. U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
• Animal Health and Welfare. World Organisation for Animal Health.
• Animal Production and Protection. USDA Agricultural Research Service.
• Animal models of obesity and diabetes mellitus.. Nature reviews. Endocrinology, 2018.
• Management of replacement breeding animals.. The Veterinary clinics of North America. Food animal practice, 1992.
• Management factors associated with swine breeding-herd productivity in the United States.. Preventive veterinary medicine, 1998.
• Swine management errors.. Modern veterinary practice, 1984.
• Artificial intelligence and porcine breeding.. Animal reproduction science, 2024.
• Advances in Breeding Management and Use of Ovulation Induction for Fixed-time AI.. Reproduction in domestic animals = Zuchthygiene, 2015.
• Pathways to Clinical Cardiac Xenotransplantation.. Transplantation, 2021.
• Mating management.. The Veterinary clinics of North America. Food animal practice, 1992.
• Telemedical management of severe postpartum hemorrhagic vaginal discharge in a sow - a case report.. 2026.
• Framing a pig welfare assessment protocol suitable for smallholder settings in low-to-middle income countries.. 2026.
• Unlocking the nutritional benefits of dietary fiber in sow feed: a short review.. 2026.
• Reducing dietary crude protein for gestating and lactating sows reduces daily nitrogen retention, but reproductive performance is not impacted by diet protein concentration.. 2026.
• A Review of Assessment of Sow Pain During Farrowing Using Grimace Scores.. 2025.
• Effects of Sow-Piglet Co-Feeding on Post-Weaning Welfare and Jejunal Morphological Development in Suckling Piglets.. 2026.
• Dietary supplementation with microencapsulated organic acids and essential oils improves sow productivity and nursery pig performance under commercial field conditions.. 2026.
• APO-CViT: A Non-Destructive Estrus Detection Method for Breeding Pigs Based on Multimodal Feature Fusion. Animals, 2025.
• A Lightweight Model for Small-Target Pig Eye Detection in Automated Estrus Recognition. Animals, 2025.
• A method and system for the detection of estrus in pigs. 2000.
• Urinary Metabolomics Revealed the Biological Characteristics Associated with Early Pregnancy in Pigs. 2021.
• Artificial insemination in pigs today.. Theriogenology, 2016.
• Estrus detection by using vaginal cytologic examination in miniature swine.. Laboratory animal science, 1993.
• Adoption and ex-post impacts of sustainable manure management practices on income and happiness: Evidence from swine breeding farmers in rural Hubei, China. Ecological Economics, 2023.
• Web-based information system for management of swine breeding herd farm. Kasetsart Journal Natural Science, 2010.
• Sustainability of Swine Breeding: Future Challenges and Opportunities. Csr Sustainability Ethics and Governance, 2023.
• Design and implementation of IoT System in swine intelligent breeding. Journal of Chinese Agricultural Mechanization, 2025.
• Analysis of survey data of breeding herd for reproductive management practices in swine farms of Punjab. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 2019.

This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.