Goat Fencing Options: Electric, Woven Wire, and Netting

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-08-14

Key Takeaways

• Woven wire fencing, particularly with smaller mesh at the bottom (e.g., 2"x4"), offers the most robust physical barrier against goat escape and predator intrusion, with a lifespan of 20-30 years, though its high initial cost and labor-intensive installation make it less suitable for rotational grazing.
• Electric fencing relies on a psychological deterrent; effectiveness hinges on a minimum voltage of 3,000 volts at the fence's furthest point, proper grounding with at least three 6-8 foot rods, and a sufficiently powerful energizer rated for the total fence length plus 20% for voltage drop.
• Portable electric netting, ideal for rotational grazing and temporary containment, typically lasts 3-5 years and requires meticulous vegetation management to prevent voltage drain, with a minimum height of 32-42 inches and a bottom strand close to the ground to deter under-digging.
• The long-term cost-effectiveness of any fencing system is paramount; repeated escapes due to inadequate materials or installation lead to significant expenses from property damage, animal loss, and time investment, outweighing the initial cost of quality fencing.
• Fence height must be breed-appropriate, with 48-54 inches generally sufficient for standard breeds, but larger breeds like Boers may require up to 60 inches, and all fences benefit from a top electric strand to deter climbing and a bottom deterrent (buried wire or low electric strand) against digging.
• Proper installation, including deep and braced corner posts (minimum 3 feet deep in concrete), appropriately spaced line posts (8-12 feet apart), and a taut wire tension, is critical for the structural integrity and longevity of any fencing system, especially woven wire.

Keeping goats contained is one of the most persistent challenges for any goat owner, whether you manage two backyard animals or a herd of two hundred. Goats are natural escape artists with a strong drive to test fences, push through weak spots, and exploit any gap they can find. Choosing the right fencing system is not just about keeping animals in. It also protects your garden, keeps goats safe from predators, and prevents costly damage to your property and your neighbors' patience.

This guide compares the three most common goat fencing options: electric fencing, woven wire, and netting. It explains how each system works, the strengths and weaknesses of each, and how to match the right fence to your specific situation. You will learn step-by-step installation methods, common mistakes to avoid, and how to maintain your fence so it keeps working for years. This guide is written for small-scale homesteaders, commercial goat producers, and anyone who needs a clear, practical comparison before making a significant investment in fencing.

At a Glance

Key takeaways:

• Woven wire is the most reliable permanent perimeter fence for goats, especially when combined with a single electric strand at the top.
• Electric fencing works well for goats that already respect fencing, but it will not stop a determined goat that has learned it can push through.
• Netting is ideal for rotational grazing and temporary setups, but it requires proper grounding and regular voltage checks.
• The cheapest fence is the one that keeps goats in the first time. Repeated escapes cost more in time, damage, and animal loss than quality materials.
• Always match your fence height to your goat breed. Smaller breeds may clear a 4 foot fence, while larger breeds can clear 5 feet when motivated.

Understanding Goat Behavior and Fencing Needs

Before you buy any fencing material, you need to understand why goats challenge fences in the first place. Goats are browsers, not grazers like cattle or sheep. They naturally reach through, over, and under barriers to sample vegetation on the other side. Their lips are dexterous enough to manipulate wires, and their heads are shaped to push through surprisingly small openings.

Goats also have a strong herd instinct. A goat alone will often try to rejoin its herd, even if that means breaching a fence it has respected for months. When one goat discovers a weak spot, the rest of the herd will follow. This means your fence is only as strong as its weakest point.

The breed and age of your goats matter. Large breeds like Boer goats can weigh over 200 pounds and will lean into fences with significant force. Smaller breeds like Nigerian Dwarfs are lighter but more agile and can squeeze through smaller gaps. Kids and young goats are curious and will test fences more frequently than mature animals that have learned boundaries.

Your fencing choice also depends on what you are keeping out. In many areas, predators such as coyotes, stray dogs, and foxes pose a greater threat to goats than escape does. A fence that simply keeps goats in may not stop a determined predator from digging under or climbing over. If predator pressure is high in your area, you need a fence that serves both purposes.

Climate and terrain also influence your fencing decision. Wet, marshy ground can undermine posts and cause wire to sag. Rocky soil makes post installation difficult. Heavy snow can flatten temporary netting. Consider your local conditions honestly before committing to a fencing system.

Electric Fencing for Goats

Electric fencing uses a controlled electrical pulse to teach goats to respect a boundary. The fence itself does not physically stop a goat. Instead, it delivers a memorable but harmless shock that trains the animal to stay away. For goats that have been properly trained, an electric fence can be an effective and economical option.

How Electric Fencing Works

An electric fence system has four main components: the energizer, the fence wire or tape, the grounding system, and the insulators and posts. The energizer converts standard household current or battery power into high-voltage pulses. These pulses travel along the fence wire. When an animal touches the wire while standing on the ground, the circuit completes and the animal receives a shock.

The grounding system is critical. The energizer sends current out through the fence wire, but that current must return to the energizer through the ground to complete the circuit. A poor ground rod system means a weak shock or no shock at all. You need at least three ground rods, each 6 to 8 feet long, placed at least 10 feet apart and connected to the energizer.

The energizer must be powerful enough for the total length of fence you are running. A small battery-powered unit may work for a 500 foot temporary fence, but a permanent perimeter fence of several thousand feet requires a plug-in energizer with higher output. Measure your total fence length and add 20 percent for voltage drop before choosing an energizer.

Types of Electric Fence Conductors

You have several choices for the conductor, which is the material that carries the electrical charge.

High tensile wire is a smooth, springy steel wire that carries electricity well and lasts for many years. It is difficult to handle because it is under high tension and can snap dangerously during installation. It is best for permanent perimeter fences where you want a long-lasting, low-maintenance option.

Polywire and polytape are made of polyethylene strands woven around thin metal filaments. They are lightweight, easy to handle, and visible to goats. Polywire is thinner and less visible, while polytape is wider and easier for goats to see. These materials are best for temporary fences and rotational grazing systems. They degrade in sunlight and need replacement every few years.

Rope and braided conductors are thicker and more visible than polywire. They are more durable than polytape but more expensive. They work well for permanent electric fences where visibility is important, such as across a pasture where goats might not see a thin wire.

Recommended Electric Fence Setup for Goats

For a permanent electric fence for goats, install at least four to five strands of high tensile wire. Place the bottom strand 6 to 8 inches above the ground to discourage kids from crawling under. Space the next strands about 8 to 10 inches apart, with the top strand at 40 to 48 inches for standard breeds. Add a bottom hot wire close to the ground to stop digging, and consider a top offset wire for jumping.

For temporary or rotational grazing, use a portable electric netting system or a three to four strand polywire setup. Keep the voltage above 3,000 volts at the far end of the fence. Goats need a strong, clear shock to learn respect. Anything below 2,000 volts is unlikely to be effective.

Training Goats to Respect Electric Fences

Electric fences only work if goats have been trained to fear them. Untrained goats may push through a charged fence, receive a shock, and then push through again because they do not connect the pain with the fence. This is especially true for goats that have previously escaped through an electric fence that was not charged or was too weak.

To train goats, place them in a small, secure pen with an electric fence on the inside. Give them plenty of good forage inside the pen so they are not tempted to reach through the fence. Let them investigate the fence naturally. When they touch it, they will receive a memorable shock. Most goats need only one or two encounters to learn respect. Keep them in the training pen for at least a week before turning them out into the larger electric fenced area.

Never train goats with a weak or poorly grounded fence. A weak shock teaches goats that the fence is not a real barrier. Once a goat learns it can push through an electric fence, retraining is difficult and sometimes impossible.

Common Electric Fence Mistakes

The most common electric fence failure is poor grounding. If your fence gives a weak shock or no shock, check the ground rods first. Grass and weeds touching the fence wire also drain voltage, so keep vegetation cleared along the fence line.

Another frequent mistake is using an undersized energizer. Fence energizers are rated by the number of miles of fence they can power, but this rating assumes ideal conditions. Heavy vegetation, wet weather, and long fence runs all reduce effectiveness. Buy a larger energizer than you think you need.

Finally, many goat owners install electric fences and then forget about them. Electric fences require regular checks. Walk the fence line weekly, look for broken wires, check voltage at the far end, and clear vegetation. A single sagging wire touching the ground can short out the entire fence.

Woven Wire Fencing for Goats

Woven wire, also called field fence or goat fence, is a permanent fencing option made of vertical and horizontal wires woven together into a grid. It is the most reliable physical barrier for goats because it creates a wall that goats cannot push through, squeeze under, or climb easily.

Types of Woven Wire

Woven wire is available in several configurations. The most common is 4 point or 6 point wire, which refers to the number of horizontal wires. The spacing between horizontal wires varies, with closer spacing at the bottom and wider spacing at the top.

For goats, look for woven wire with small mesh openings at the bottom. A 2 inch by 4 inch mesh at the bottom prevents kids from squeezing through, while the wider 4 inch by 4 inch or 6 inch by 6 inch mesh higher up keeps the fence affordable. Some manufacturers make a specific goat and sheep fence with 2 inch by 4 inch mesh throughout, which is the best choice for small breeds and kids.

The wire gauge matters. Heavier gauge wire, such as 12.5 gauge, is stronger and longer lasting but more expensive. Lighter gauge wire, such as 14 gauge, is easier to handle but may bend or sag under pressure from large goats. For permanent fencing, choose the heaviest gauge you can afford.

Galvanization is essential. Galvanized wire has a zinc coating that protects against rust. Look for Class 3 galvanization, which has a thicker coating and lasts significantly longer than standard galvanization. The extra cost is worth it for a fence that should last 20 to 30 years.

Installation Steps for Woven Wire

Proper installation determines how well your woven wire fence performs. Follow these steps for a durable, effective fence.

Plan your layout. Walk the fence line and mark post locations. Corners and gate openings need heavier posts, typically 6 to 8 inches in diameter. Line posts can be 4 to 5 inches in diameter. Space line posts 8 to 12 feet apart, with closer spacing on uneven ground.

Set corner posts first. Corner posts carry the tension of the entire fence. Set them at least 3 feet deep in concrete. Use a brace system at corners, either a horizontal brace to a second post or a diagonal brace from the corner post to the ground. This prevents the corner from pulling over when the wire is stretched.

Set line posts. Line posts should be set 2 to 3 feet deep, depending on your soil. In sandy or wet soil, go deeper. Use a post driver or auger for efficiency. Keep posts straight and at consistent height.

Attach the woven wire. Start at one corner and unroll the wire along the fence line. Attach the wire to the corner post using fence staples or wire clips. Stretch the wire tight using a fence stretcher or come-along. The wire should be taut but not so tight that it distorts the mesh. Attach the wire to each line post with staples, driving them at an angle so they do not pull out.

Add a top wire. A single strand of smooth wire or barbed wire along the top of the woven wire adds height and strength. Attach it to the posts with staples or insulators if you plan to electrify it.

Bury the bottom edge. To prevent goats and predators from digging under the fence, bury the bottom 6 inches of the woven wire in a trench. This also keeps the fence tight and prevents vegetation from growing through the mesh. In rocky soil where trenching is difficult, lay the bottom wire flat on the ground and pin it down with landscape staples.

Adding Electric to Woven Wire

Many goat owners add one or two electric strands to their woven wire fence. A single hot wire at the top of the fence prevents goats from climbing over and discourages predators from climbing in. An electric wire at the bottom, placed 4 to 6 inches off the ground, prevents digging.

The electric wire should be mounted on insulators so it does not touch the woven wire and short out. Use a separate energizer or connect the electric wire to the same energizer as other electric fencing. Check the wire regularly to ensure it stays charged and free of vegetation.

Woven Wire Advantages and Disadvantages

Woven wire is the most secure option for goats. It provides a physical barrier that works even when the power is off. It is the best choice for perimeter fences, permanent paddocks, and areas with high predator pressure. Once installed, it requires minimal maintenance beyond occasional staple checks and vegetation control.

The main disadvantage is cost. Woven wire is more expensive than electric fencing or netting, and installation is labor intensive. It is difficult to move, so it is not suitable for rotational grazing systems. It can also be hazardous to wildlife, which may become entangled in the mesh. Some owners prefer a smooth wire electric fence to reduce wildlife risk.

Goat Netting Fencing

Goat netting is a type of portable electric fencing made of vertical strands of polywire connected by horizontal strands, forming a net pattern. It is designed specifically for sheep and goats and is a popular choice for rotational grazing, temporary paddocks, and overnight enclosures.

How Goat Netting Works

Goat netting combines the psychological deterrent of electric shock with a physical barrier. The netting typically stands 32 to 42 inches tall, with vertical strands spaced 6 to 8 inches apart. The bottom strand is close to the ground to prevent goats from crawling under. The netting is supported by lightweight posts that are pushed into the ground by hand.

The netting carries an electrical charge through the horizontal strands. When a goat touches the netting, it receives a shock. The vertical strands are not electrified but create a physical barrier that discourages pushing through.

Goat netting is available in rolls of 50 to 300 feet. It can be connected end to end to create larger enclosures. The posts are typically made of fiberglass or plastic and have a pointed base for easy installation.

Setting Up Goat Netting

Setting up goat netting is straightforward but requires attention to detail. Start by laying the rolled netting along the fence line. Unroll it completely, making sure the posts are oriented correctly. The posts should be on the inside of the enclosure, with the netting facing outward.

Push each post firmly into the ground. In soft soil, this takes little effort. In hard or dry soil, you may need a rubber mallet or a post driver. Make sure each post is vertical and the netting is taut. A sagging net is easier for goats to push under.

Connect the netting sections using the built-in connectors. Most netting has a male and female connector at each end that twists together. Make sure the connectors are clean and free of vegetation, as poor connections cause voltage drops.

Connect the netting to your energizer using a lead wire. Attach the lead wire to the terminal on the netting and run it to the energizer. Ensure the energizer is properly grounded with at least three ground rods.

Finally, test the voltage at the far end of the netting. It should read at least 3,000 volts. If the voltage is low, check for vegetation touching the netting, poor connections, or inadequate grounding.

Managing Goat Netting

Goat netting is designed for temporary use. It is not a permanent fence. The posts are lightweight and can work loose over time. The polywire degrades in sunlight and becomes brittle after a few years. With careful handling, a set of netting can last 3 to 5 years, but you should expect to replace sections periodically.

The biggest challenge with goat netting is keeping vegetation cleared. Grass and weeds touching the netting drain voltage and reduce the shock. You must mow or trim along the netting line regularly, especially during the growing season. Some owners use a string trimmer along the fence line every week or two.

When moving netting, roll it up carefully to avoid tangling. Start at one end and roll the netting around the posts as you go. Store it out of direct sunlight when not in use to extend its life.

When to Use Goat Netting

Goat netting shines in rotational grazing systems. You can set up a new paddock in 30 minutes and move the goats to fresh pasture quickly. It is also useful for temporary confinement, such as keeping goats in a barnyard while you work on infrastructure, or creating a safe area for kidding.

Netting is not the best choice for permanent perimeter fencing. The posts work loose over time, the netting degrades, and the ongoing maintenance is higher than woven wire. If you need a permanent fence, invest in woven wire or high tensile electric instead.

Goat Netting Safety Considerations

Goat netting can be a hazard to wildlife and small animals. Birds, rabbits, and other creatures may become entangled in the netting. Check the netting regularly and free any trapped animals. Some owners place a smooth wire electric fence outside the netting to keep wildlife away.

Netting is also a tripping hazard for people. The bottom strand is close to the ground and can catch a boot. Mark the fence line clearly and warn visitors. Always disconnect or deactivate the netting before working on it.

Choosing the Best Goat Fencing for Your Situation

There is no single best goat fencing option. The right choice depends on your herd size, your budget, your predator pressure, and how you manage your land. Work through these decision factors before making a purchase.

Herd Size and Goat Experience

If you are new to goats or have goats that have previously escaped, start with woven wire. The physical barrier provides a safety net while your goats learn their boundaries. Once your goats are reliably contained, you can add electric fencing for rotational grazing.

For large herds, the cost per animal matters. Woven wire is expensive but lasts for decades, making it cost effective for permanent facilities. Netting is cheaper upfront but requires replacement every few years, making it more expensive over time for a permanent setup.

Predator Pressure

Assess the predator risk in your area. Talk to neighboring livestock owners, your local extension agent, and your veterinarian. If coyotes, bears, or large stray dogs are common, woven wire with an electric top strand is the safest choice. Netting and simple electric fences offer less protection, especially at night.

Predators dig under fences and climb over them. Bury the bottom of your woven wire at least 6 inches, and consider extending it outward 12 inches at ground level to discourage digging. Add an electric wire 6 inches off the ground and another at the top of the fence.

Rotational Grazing Needs

If you practice rotational grazing, you need a fencing system you can move easily. Netting is the best option for this purpose. It sets up quickly, moves easily, and provides adequate containment for goats that respect electric fencing. Use woven wire for your permanent perimeter and netting for internal paddock divisions.

Budget Considerations

Your initial budget is important, but consider the total cost of ownership over 10 years. Woven wire has a high upfront cost but low maintenance. Netting has a moderate upfront cost but requires replacement every few years. Electric fencing has a low upfront cost but requires ongoing maintenance and an energizer that will eventually need replacement.

Do not skimp on corner posts, braces, and energizers. These components are the foundation of your fence system. A cheap corner post that pulls over will ruin an expensive roll of woven wire. A weak energizer will make your electric fence useless.

Climate and Terrain

Heavy snow can flatten portable netting. If you have harsh winters, plan to remove netting before the first snowfall or use a permanent fence for winter paddocks. Wet ground can undermine posts, so set permanent posts deeper in poorly draining soil. Rocky soil makes post driving difficult and may require specialized equipment or concrete footings.

Common Fencing Mistakes and How to Avoid Them

Even experienced goat owners make fencing mistakes. Here are the most common problems and how to prevent them.

Underestimating Goat Determination

Goats are persistent. A fence that works for years can fail when a goat is highly motivated, such as when a doe is in heat, a buck smells a doe, or a goat is separated from its herd. Build your fence for the worst case, not the average day. Add height, strength, and electric charge to handle motivated goats.

Poor Post Installation

A fence is only as good as its posts. Posts that are too shallow, too small, or not braced at corners will fail under tension. Use heavy posts at corners, set them deep in concrete, and brace them properly. Line posts should be driven deep enough to stay firm in wet soil.

Ignoring the Bottom of the Fence

Goats are experts at finding gaps under fences. Kids can squeeze through a 4 inch gap. Adults will dig and push their way under a loose fence. Keep the bottom of your fence tight to the ground. Bury woven wire, keep netting taut, and place electric wires close to the ground.

Inadequate Energizer and Grounding

Many electric fence failures trace back to an undersized energizer or poor grounding. Buy an energizer rated for at least 50 percent more fence than you need. Install at least three ground rods in moist soil. Test the voltage regularly and fix problems immediately.

Letting Vegetation Touch the Fence

Vegetation is the enemy of electric fencing. Grass, weeds, and tree branches touching the wire drain voltage and reduce the shock. Keep a clear strip along your fence line. Mow or spray a vegetation barrier under the fence. This is especially important for netting, which sits close to the ground.

Not Planning for Gates

Gates are the weak point of any fence. A well built fence with a flimsy gate will fail. Invest in sturdy gate posts, heavy-duty hinges, and a reliable latch. Make sure the gate opening is wide enough for your equipment and that the gate closes tightly with no gaps.

Monitoring and Maintaining Your Goat Fence

A fence is not a set-and-forget installation. Regular monitoring keeps your fence working and prevents escapes. Build a maintenance routine and stick to it.

Weekly Checks

Walk your fence line weekly. Look for:

• Broken or sagging wires
• Loose posts
• Vegetation touching electric wires
• Damage from animals or falling branches
• Signs of digging along the fence line
• Loose staples and clips

For electric fences, test the voltage at the far end of the fence with a digital fence tester. Record the voltage reading in a log. A sudden drop in voltage indicates a problem that needs investigation.

Monthly Maintenance

Once a month, do a more thorough inspection. Check the energizer for proper operation and clean the terminals. Inspect ground rods and ensure they are still firmly in the ground. Tighten any loose wire. Repair any damaged netting sections. Apply rust treatment to any bare spots on woven wire.

Seasonal Maintenance

In spring, check for frost heave that has loosened posts. In summer, keep vegetation under control and check for insect damage to wooden posts. In fall, prepare for winter by removing portable netting and checking permanent fences for weak spots. In winter, clear snow from fence lines and check for ice damage.

Keep records of your fence maintenance. Note when you installed the fence, what materials you used, and any repairs you made. This information helps you plan replacements and identify recurring problems.

When to Replace Fencing

No fence lasts forever. Watch for signs that your fence needs replacement:

• Woven wire with extensive rust or broken wires
• Netting that is brittle, cracked, or no longer holds a charge
• Posts that are rotten, cracked, or no longer hold firmly
• Electric wire with broken strands or corroded connections

Replacing a section of fence before it fails is cheaper than dealing with escaped goats. If you see a problem, fix it immediately. Do not wait for a goat to find the weak spot.

Working with Professionals

Most goat fencing projects are doable for a motivated owner, but some situations call for professional help. If you are fencing a large area, dealing with difficult terrain, or installing a high tensile electric fence, consider hiring a professional fence installer. They have the specialized equipment and experience to do the job safely and correctly.

Your local extension agent can provide guidance on fencing options for your area and may have resources on predator control and pasture management. They can also connect you with other goat producers who can share their fencing experiences.

Frequently Asked Questions

How tall should a goat fence be?

For most goat breeds, a fence of 48 to 54 inches is sufficient. Larger breeds like Boer goats may need 60 inches, especially if they are highly motivated to escape. Remember that goats can jump, climb, and push through fences, so height alone does not solve all problems. Combine adequate height with a physical or electrical barrier at the top.

Can I use cattle panels for goats?

Cattle panels, also called livestock panels, can work for goats in some situations. The mesh openings are large enough for goats to push their heads through, which can lead to injury if they get stuck. If you use cattle panels, add a strand of electric wire along the top and bottom to discourage pushing and climbing. For small kids, use a panel with smaller mesh or add netting to the bottom.

How many strands of electric wire do I need for goats?

For a permanent electric fence, use at least four to five strands. Place the bottom strand 6 to 8 inches off the ground, with successive strands spaced 8 to 10 inches apart. The top strand should be 40 to 48 inches high. For temporary fencing, three strands may work for trained goats, but four is safer.

Will an electric fence keep predators out?

An electric fence can deter some predators, but it is not reliable protection against determined predators like coyotes or bears. A properly charged fence delivers a memorable shock that may discourage most predators. For high predator pressure, use woven wire with an electric top wire and a buried bottom edge. Consider livestock guardian animals as an additional layer of protection.

How often should I check my electric fence voltage?

Check your electric fence voltage at least weekly, and more often during the growing season when vegetation is heavy. Use a digital fence tester and record the readings. The voltage at the far end of the fence should be at least 3,000 volts. If it drops below 2,000 volts, goats may not receive a sufficient shock.

Can goats be trained to respect an electric fence?

Yes, most goats can be trained to respect an electric fence. Place untrained goats in a small pen with an electric fence and plenty of good forage inside. Let them touch the fence and receive a shock. Most goats need only one or two encounters to learn. Keep them in the training pen for at least a week before giving them access to a larger area.

What is the cheapest way to fence goats?

The cheapest initial option is a simple electric fence with a few strands of polywire and a small energizer. However, cheap fences often fail, and the cost of escaped goats quickly exceeds the savings. A better approach is to invest in quality materials that last. Consider the total cost over 10 years, including maintenance and replacement, rather than just the purchase price.

How do I keep goats from digging under the fence?

To prevent digging, keep the bottom of your fence tight to the ground. Bury the bottom 6 inches of woven wire in a trench. For electric fences, place a hot wire 4 to 6 inches off the ground. For netting, make sure the bottom strand is close to the ground and the netting is taut. Check the fence line regularly for signs of digging and fill any holes immediately.

Related Farming Guides

This section will be populated with related farming guides and resources to help you continue learning about goat management, pasture systems, and livestock fencing. Check back for updates or explore other guides in this collection.

Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

• Goat Breeding Season Planning: Timing, Nutrition, and Health Checks
• Alfalfa Hay for Goats: Feeding Decisions and Mineral Context
• Goat Fiber Production: Cashmere and Mohair Management

References

• American Consortium for Small Ruminant Parasite Control (ACSRPC): https://www.wormx.info/
• USDA APHIS Goat Health: https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/sheep-goats
• FAO Sheep and Goat Production: https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/
• FAO Animal Production and Health: https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/
• WOAH (World Organisation for Animal Health): https://www.woah.org/en/home/

This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.