Qualitative Research Questions: Formulation and Examples

Qualitative research questions ask how, why, or what about human experience, decision making, and social processes. For life science professionals, these questions explore why patients decline treatment, how clinicians adapt evidence to local practice, and what factors shape health behaviors. This article explains how to formulate qualitative research questions, distinguishes question types, provides examples from life science research, and offers a practical worksheet for developing your own questions.

Qualitative methods help answer complex questions such as how and why efforts to implement best practices may succeed or fail, and how patients and providers experience and make decisions in care [6]. Unlike quantitative research that tests hypotheses with numerical data, qualitative research generates hypotheses and new research questions from the data itself [9]. The investigator stance is relevant and explicitly acknowledged, and questions tend to be inductive [13].

What Makes a Qualitative Research Question Different

Qualitative research questions differ from quantitative ones in purpose, structure, and flexibility. A quantitative question asks about relationships between variables, such as whether drug A reduces blood pressure more than drug B. A qualitative question asks about meaning and process, such as how patients decide whether to take a prescribed medication or why providers choose one treatment protocol over another.

Qualitative research questions address the how, why, or what of a particular issue [8]. They explore perplexing or complicated clinical situations where quantitative work cannot capture the deeper meaning and complexity [13]. For example, qualitative studies can explain why patients decline joint replacement surgery, why they do not adhere to pain medication and exercise regimens, how they manage in the postoperative period, and why providers do not always provide evidence-based care [13].

The structure of qualitative questions typically includes the phenomenon of interest, the participant group, and the context. The Emphasis-Purposeful sample-Phenomenon of interest-Context framework, known as EPPiC, provides a tool for constructing structured overarching research questions [10]. This framework helps researchers specify what they are studying, who they are studying, and where the study takes place.

Qualitative research design is typically flexible and subjective [9]. Researchers do not set out with a fixed agenda in methods like narrative interviewing, where the interviewee controls the direction, content, and pace of the interview [11]. This flexibility means the research question may evolve as data collection proceeds, which is a feature of qualitative research instead of a flaw.

Types of Qualitative Research Questions

Qualitative research questions fall into several categories based on their purpose and the methodology used. Understanding these types helps researchers select the right question format for their study.

Descriptive Questions

Descriptive questions seek to characterize experiences, perceptions, or practices. They ask what something is like or how people experience a phenomenon. These questions are common in qualitative description and focused ethnography designs [10].

Examples of descriptive questions include:

• What are the experiences of clinical nurses when they first attempt to translate clinical problems into research initiatives?
• How do office workers describe the aspects of their work environment that support or hinder their health?
• What does conscious consumerism mean to elementary school students?

Descriptive questions are appropriate when little is known about a topic and the goal is to build a foundational understanding. They often serve as the first step in a line of qualitative inquiry.

Interpretive Questions

Interpretive questions go beyond description to explore meaning and understanding. They ask how people make sense of their experiences and what those experiences mean to them. Interpretive questions are central to phenomenology and interpretive description approaches [10].

Examples of interpretive questions include:

• How do nurses interpret the value of research evidence when adapting it to their local practice context?
• What meaning do rural high school students assign to the iterative process of creating objects with 3D printing?
• How do patients understand their experiences of taking antidepressant medication over time?

Interpretive questions require the researcher to engage deeply with participant perspectives and to acknowledge their own interpretive stance [13].

Process Questions

Process questions examine how things happen over time. They ask about mechanisms, sequences, and changes. These questions are well suited to grounded theory and case study methodologies [13].

Examples of process questions include:

• How do clinical nurses develop research literacy in clinical environments over the course of their careers?
• How does a data-oriented educational technology artifact mediate sustainability-oriented entrepreneurship education in a public school context?
• How do life science students develop practical skills during emergency remote learning?

Process questions often generate theories or models that explain how a phenomenon unfolds. For example, a qualitative study developed a behavioral pathway model among nurses in China by examining how they learned to engage in clinical research [14].

Evaluative Questions

Evaluative questions assess programs, interventions, or practices from the perspective of those involved. They ask what works, for whom, and under what circumstances. These questions are common in implementation research [6].

Examples of evaluative questions include:

• How do patients and providers experience a collaborative care management model for anxiety, depression, and PTSD?
• What aspects of a makerspace program do rural students perceive as supporting their creative thinking?
• How do teachers and students evaluate the conscious consumerism content in life science lessons?

Evaluative questions help researchers understand why implementation efforts succeed or fail and how interventions are received by their intended audiences [6].

Circular Questions

Circular questions explore relationships and patterns of interaction. They ask about connections between people, events, and contexts. This approach originated in family therapy and has been adapted for qualitative research [25].

Examples of circular questions include:

• How do team climate and professional hierarchy shape research-related dialogue among clinical nurses?
• How do interactions between students and the Smart Lunch artifact influence their formulation of hypotheses about food waste?
• How do relationships between teachers and students affect the acquisition of values through skill-based questions?

Circular questions are particularly useful when studying social systems and interpersonal dynamics.

Formulating Qualitative Research Questions

Formulating a qualitative research question requires attention to scope, clarity, and alignment with methodology. The following steps provide a practical workflow for developing questions that will guide rigorous qualitative research.

Step 1: Identify the Phenomenon of Interest

Start by identifying what you want to understand. The phenomenon of interest is the central focus of your study. It should be something that can be explored through the perspectives and experiences of participants.

For example, if you are interested in why patients decline joint replacement surgery, the phenomenon of interest is the decision-making process around surgery [13]. If you are interested in how nurses develop research literacy, the phenomenon is the learning process in clinical environments [14].

Write a clear statement of the phenomenon. This statement will anchor your research question and guide later decisions about sampling and data collection.

Step 2: Define the Participant Group

Specify who can provide relevant information about the phenomenon. Qualitative research uses purposive sampling to select participants who have experience with the phenomenon of interest [23]. The participant group should be described in terms of characteristics relevant to the study.

For example, a study about research literacy might include clinical nurses from multiple departments in a tertiary teaching hospital [14]. A study about office worker health might include office workers from different companies and work settings [16].

Consider the range of perspectives needed to understand the phenomenon. Variation in career stage, educational background, and research exposure can enrich the data [14].

Step 3: Specify the Context

Describe where and under what conditions the phenomenon occurs. Context includes physical settings, social environments, and temporal factors. The EPPiC framework emphasizes context as a key component of qualitative research questions [10].

For example, a study about emergency remote learning would specify the context of Malaysian universities during the COVID-19 pandemic [19]. A study about food waste education would specify the context of a Brazilian public school [15].

Context matters because it shapes participant experiences and the meaning they assign to those experiences.

Step 4: Choose the Question Type

Select the type of question that matches your research purpose. Descriptive questions suit exploratory studies, interpretive questions suit meaning-focused studies, process questions suit theory-building studies, and evaluative questions suit implementation studies.

Consider the methodology you plan to use. Grounded theory, phenomenology, and ethnography each have characteristic question types [13]. Qualitative description and interpretive description are designs relevant to applied nutrition science and other applied fields [10].

Step 5: Draft and Refine the Question

Write an initial draft of your research question using the EPPiC framework. Then refine it for clarity and scope. A good qualitative research question is focused enough to guide data collection but open enough to allow unexpected findings to emerge.

Test your question by asking whether it can be answered through qualitative data. If the question asks about frequency or quantity, it may be better suited to quantitative methods. If the question asks about meaning, process, or experience, qualitative methods are appropriate.

Step 6: Document Your Question

Record your research question and the rationale for its formulation. This documentation supports transparency and reproducibility. Qualitative systematic reviews should be based on well-planned protocols that outline the research question and the processes used to undertake the review [7].

Consider preregistering your qualitative study. Preregistration can track flexibility, provide a check on subjectivity, and combat dissemination bias [9]. While qualitative research does not test hypotheses, preregistration can still enhance credibility by making the research process transparent.

At a Glance: Qualitative Research Question Types

Examples of Qualitative Research Questions in Life Science

Life science research offers many examples of well-formulated qualitative research questions. These examples illustrate how researchers apply the principles described above.

Example 1: Clinical Nursing Research Literacy

A qualitative study examined how nurses in China learn to engage in clinical research. The study used semi-structured interviews with 20 clinical nurses from multiple departments in a tertiary teaching hospital. Participants were purposively sampled to capture variation in career stage, educational background, and research exposure [14].

The research explored how nurses understood research, interacted around research ideas, evaluated research value, and attempted to initiate or sustain research or improvement projects. Data were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis informed by research literacy theory and the Capability-Opportunity-Motivation-Behaviour framework [14].

The study found that nurses commonly accessed research evidence but often relied on conclusion-oriented interpretation instead of methodological appraisal, which limited their ability to adapt evidence to local practice. Research-related dialogue was mediated by hierarchy, professional positioning, team climate, and other contextual factors [14].

This example shows how a process question can generate a behavioral pathway model that explains how research literacy develops in clinical settings.

Example 2: Office Worker Health Environments

A photovoice study in Sweden examined what office workers perceive as supporting or hindering their health during office work. The study involved 17 office workers from 5 companies who took photos and provided written comments about their work environments [16].

The study had two objectives: to identify aspects that office workers perceive as supporting or hindering their health, and to formulate novel questions about office work for quantitative studies. The researchers identified 9 aspects and categorized them into environmental and behavioral perspectives [16].

Of 63 photos, 70 percent were taken at home, 24 percent in an office, and 6 percent outdoors. Comments on photos taken in conventional office settings largely highlighted health-promoting aspects, while interpretations of home office photos showed greater variability regarding their impact on health [16].

This example shows how qualitative findings can generate hypotheses for subsequent quantitative research, demonstrating the complementary relationship between qualitative and quantitative methods.

Example 3: Rural Student Creativity and 3D Printing

A convergent mixed method study examined whether integrating making and tinkering experiences through 3D printing affected rural school students' creativity. The study involved eleven students ages 16 to 18 from a rural public high school in the southeastern United States, seven of whom participated in semi-structured interviews [17].

The qualitative component explored how the hands-on, iterative nature of the 3D printing process fostered students' creative thinking, particularly originality and usefulness. The makerspace program provided a tangible platform that allowed students to translate abstract ideas into physical products via rapid prototyping [17].

This example shows how qualitative questions can be integrated with quantitative designs to provide deeper understanding of intervention effects.

Example 4: Food Waste Education

A design science research study examined how a data-oriented educational technology artifact mediated sustainability-oriented entrepreneurship education in a Brazilian public school context. The study integrated design science research with interpretative qualitative analysis [15].

The research examined how school food waste could be transformed from a routine institutional residue into a pedagogical object of inquiry. Empirical material was generated through observations, questionnaires, in-depth interviews, institutional documents, aggregate waste records, and records generated during activities mediated by the artifact [15].

Findings indicated that the artifact supported data visibility, reflective discussion, and student agency, enabling participants to formulate hypotheses, propose interventions, and reinterpret food waste as a shared sustainability challenge [15].

This example shows how qualitative questions can explore the mediating role of technology in educational settings.

Example 5: Conscious Consumerism Education

A basic qualitative research study examined conscious consumer perceptions and behaviors of elementary school second grade students and teachers. The study used criterion sampling, a purposive sampling method, and was conducted with 48 students and 5 teachers [21].

Data were collected from students through drawing pictures about conscious consumerism and explaining their pictures, and from teachers through open-ended questions. From 6 emerging themes, only the theme of wish and need was expressed by both students and teachers [21].

This example shows how qualitative research can be conducted with young children using age-appropriate data collection methods.

The Question Formulation Worksheet

Use this worksheet to develop a qualitative research question for your study. Work through each section in order, writing your responses in the spaces provided.

Section 1: Phenomenon of Interest

Write a clear statement of what you want to understand. Avoid vague terms and specify the experience, process, or meaning you will explore.

Prompt: What experience, process, or meaning do you want to understand?

Your response: ____________________________________________________________

Section 2: Participant Group

Describe who can provide relevant information about the phenomenon. Consider the range of perspectives needed.

Prompt: Who has experience with this phenomenon? What variation in characteristics is relevant?

Your response: ____________________________________________________________

Section 3: Context

Specify where and under what conditions the phenomenon occurs. Include physical, social, and temporal factors.

Prompt: Where and when does this phenomenon occur? What contextual factors shape it?

Your response: ____________________________________________________________

Section 4: Question Type

Select the question type that matches your research purpose. Check one box.

• Descriptive: I want to characterize experiences or practices
• Interpretive: I want to explore meaning and understanding
• Process: I want to examine how things happen over time
• Evaluative: I want to assess a program or intervention
• Circular: I want to explore relationships and interactions

Section 5: Draft Question

Combine your responses into a draft research question. Use the EPPiC framework to structure your question.

Prompt: Write a question that includes the emphasis, purposeful sample, phenomenon of interest, and context.

Your response: ____________________________________________________________

Section 6: Question Check

Review your draft question against these criteria. Revise if needed.

• Does the question ask about meaning, process, or experience instead of frequency or quantity?
• Is the participant group specified?
• Is the context described?
• Can the question be answered through qualitative data collection methods?
• Is the question focused enough to guide data collection but open enough to allow unexpected findings?

Section 7: Documentation Plan

Describe how you will document your research question and any changes that occur during the study.

Prompt: How will you record your research question and track modifications?

Your response: ____________________________________________________________

Good Versus Poor Qualitative Research Questions

Comparing good and poor questions helps researchers recognize the characteristics of effective qualitative research questions.

Poor Question: What percentage of patients decline joint replacement surgery?

This question asks about frequency, which is a quantitative question. It cannot be answered through qualitative data collection methods. A qualitative version would ask how patients decide whether to accept or decline surgery and what factors influence their decision [13].

Good Question: How do patients decide whether to accept or decline joint replacement surgery?

This question asks about a decision-making process. It can be explored through interviews or focus groups with patients who have faced this decision. The question is open enough to allow unexpected factors to emerge.

Poor Question: Is the collaborative care model effective for treating anxiety and depression?

This question asks about effectiveness, which requires outcome measurement. It is better suited to a quantitative or mixed methods design. A qualitative version would ask how patients and providers experience the collaborative care model [6].

Good Question: How do patients and providers experience a collaborative care management model for anxiety, depression, and PTSD?

This question asks about experience, which is a qualitative concern. It can be explored through interviews with patients and providers who have participated in the model. The question acknowledges that experience may vary across participant groups.

Poor Question: What are the barriers to research participation?

This question is too broad. It does not specify the participant group, the context, or the type of research. A good qualitative question needs to be focused enough to guide sampling and data collection.

Good Question: How do clinical nurses in a tertiary teaching hospital in China navigate barriers to initiating research projects?

This question specifies the participant group (clinical nurses), the context (tertiary teaching hospital in China), and the phenomenon (navigating barriers to initiating research). It is focused enough to guide data collection while remaining open to unexpected findings [14].

Poor Question: Does 3D printing improve student creativity?

This question asks about improvement, which implies measurement of change. It is better suited to a quantitative design. A qualitative version would ask how students experience the process of creating objects with 3D printing [17].

Good Question: How do rural high school students experience the iterative process of creating objects with 3D printing?

This question asks about experience and process. It can be explored through interviews with students who have participated in makerspace programs. The question allows students to describe what the process means to them.

Common Failure Patterns in Qualitative Research Questions

Researchers often encounter predictable problems when formulating qualitative research questions. Recognizing these patterns helps avoid them.

Failure Pattern 1: Asking Quantitative Questions

Some researchers write questions that ask about frequency, quantity, or relationships between variables. These questions cannot be answered through qualitative methods. For example, asking what percentage of patients decline surgery is a quantitative question.

Correction: Rewrite the question to ask about meaning, process, or experience. Instead of asking how many, ask how or why.

Failure Pattern 2: Making Questions Too Broad

Questions that are too broad cannot guide data collection. For example, asking what are the barriers to research participation does not specify who, where, or what type of research.

Correction: Use the EPPiC framework to specify the emphasis, purposeful sample, phenomenon of interest, and context [10].

Failure Pattern 3: Making Questions Too Narrow

Questions that are too narrow limit the researcher's ability to discover unexpected findings. For example, asking whether nurses use a specific checklist to evaluate research evidence assumes the checklist is relevant to their practice.

Correction: Keep the question open enough to allow participants to describe their actual experiences and practices.

Failure Pattern 4: Assuming What Participants Will Say

Some questions embed assumptions about the answer. For example, asking why patients are noncompliant with medication assumes that noncompliance is the relevant frame for understanding medication-taking behavior.

Correction: Use neutral language that does not presuppose the findings. Ask about experiences and decisions without labeling them as compliant or noncompliant.

Failure Pattern 5: Confusing Methods with Questions

Some researchers write questions about methods instead of phenomena. For example, asking what themes emerge from interviews with nurses is a question about analysis, not about the phenomenon of interest.

Correction: Focus the question on the phenomenon, not the method. The method should follow from the question.

Failure Pattern 6: Ignoring Context

Questions that ignore context produce findings that are difficult to interpret. Context shapes participant experiences and the meaning they assign to those experiences.

Correction: Specify the context in the research question. Include physical, social, and temporal factors that are relevant to the phenomenon.

Records and Measurements in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research requires systematic documentation of the research process. Records support transparency, rigor, and the credibility of findings.

Research Question Records

Document your research question and any modifications made during the study. Record the date of each modification and the reason for the change. This documentation supports transparency about the flexible nature of qualitative research [9].

Sampling Records

Record your sampling decisions, including the criteria used to select participants and the rationale for those criteria. Purposive sampling is common in qualitative research [23]. Document how you ensured variation in relevant participant characteristics.

Data Collection Records

Maintain records of data collection activities, including dates, locations, and participant characteristics. For interviews, record the duration and the topics covered. For observations, record the setting and the activities observed.

Analysis Records

Document your analysis process, including coding decisions and the development of themes. Qualitative analysis typically proceeds with the identification, coding, and categorization of patterns in the data [13]. Record how you moved from raw data to findings.

Audit Trail

An audit trail documents the research process in sufficient detail that another researcher could follow your decisions. This supports the confirmability of qualitative findings [9]. Include raw data, analysis notes, and records of methodological decisions.

Quality Controls in Qualitative Research

Several practices support the quality and credibility of qualitative research. These practices address the distinctive features of qualitative methods.

Reflexivity

Reflexivity involves acknowledging the investigator stance and its influence on the research. The stance of the investigator is relevant and explicitly acknowledged in qualitative research [13]. Keep a reflexive journal to record how your background and assumptions shape data collection and analysis.

Triangulation

Triangulation involves using multiple sources of data or multiple methods to explore the phenomenon. For example, a study might combine interviews, observations, and document analysis. Triangulation strengthens findings by providing multiple perspectives on the phenomenon.

Member Checking

Member checking involves sharing findings with participants to check whether the interpretations resonate with their experiences. This practice supports the credibility of qualitative findings.

Peer Review

Peer review involves having colleagues review the research process and findings. This practice provides an external check on the analysis and interpretation.

Reporting Standards

Reporting standards support the transparency and reproducibility of qualitative research. The EQUATOR Network provides reporting guidelines for health research, including qualitative studies [2]. Following reporting standards helps readers evaluate the quality of the research.

Limitations of Qualitative Research Questions

Qualitative research questions have limitations that researchers should acknowledge. Understanding these limitations helps researchers select appropriate methods and interpret findings appropriately.

Limited Generalizability

Qualitative research does not set out to be generalizable and may only involve a small set of interviews [11]. Findings are typically specific to the participants and context studied. Researchers should not claim that findings apply to other populations or settings.

Resource Intensity

Qualitative methods are rigorous and take training and time to apply [13]. Data collection and analysis are labor intensive. Researchers should plan for the resources required to conduct qualitative research properly.

Subjectivity

Qualitative research involves interpretation by the researcher. The investigator stance is relevant and explicitly acknowledged [13]. This subjectivity is a feature of the approach, but it requires management through reflexivity and other quality controls.

Flexibility Challenges

The flexible nature of qualitative research can be challenging for researchers accustomed to fixed protocols. Qualitative research design is typically flexible and subjective [9]. Researchers must balance flexibility with systematic documentation.

Training Requirements

Limited training and mentorship availability can be a challenge for the rigorous application of qualitative methods [10]. Researchers should seek training and mentorship to develop the skills needed for qualitative research.

Safety and Regulatory Context

Qualitative research involving human participants is subject to ethical and regulatory requirements. Researchers must obtain approval from institutional review boards or ethics committees before beginning data collection.

Informed Consent

Participants must provide informed consent before participating in qualitative research. Consent processes should explain the purpose of the research, the procedures involved, and the rights of participants. For research involving children, parental consent and student assent are required [17].

Confidentiality

Researchers must protect the confidentiality of participant data. This includes using pseudonyms in reports and storing data securely. Participants should be informed about how their data will be used and protected.

Data Management

Research data should be managed according to institutional and funder requirements. The Research Data Framework provides guidance on data management practices [1]. The National Center for Biotechnology Information provides literature resources that can support research [4]. PubMed provides access to biomedical literature [5].

Professional Escalation Criteria

Researchers should seek additional guidance when they encounter situations beyond their expertise. Escalation criteria include:

• Uncertainty about ethical requirements for a specific participant group
• Unexpected distress or safety concerns among participants
• Questions about data management or security requirements
• Uncertainty about reporting standards for a specific journal or funder
• Concerns about the rigor of the research design or analysis

In these situations, consult with institutional review boards, research mentors, or colleagues with qualitative research expertise.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between a qualitative and a quantitative research question?

A quantitative research question asks about relationships between variables, such as whether one treatment produces better outcomes than another. A qualitative research question asks about meaning, process, or experience, such as how patients decide whether to accept a treatment or how providers experience implementing a new protocol. Qualitative questions address the how, why, or what of a particular issue [8].

How do I know if my research question is suitable for qualitative methods?

Your question is suitable for qualitative methods if it asks about meaning, process, or experience instead of frequency or quantity. Qualitative methods help answer complex questions such as how and why efforts to implement best practices may succeed or fail, and how patients and providers experience and make decisions in care [6]. If your question asks how many or how much, it is likely better suited to quantitative methods.

What is the EPPiC framework for qualitative research questions?

The Emphasis-Purposeful sample-Phenomenon of interest-Context framework, known as EPPiC, is a tool for constructing structured overarching research questions [10]. The framework helps researchers specify what they are studying, who they are studying, and where the study takes place. Using this framework ensures that research questions include all the components needed to guide sampling and data collection.

Can I use multiple qualitative research questions in one study?

Yes, studies can have multiple research questions. For example, a photovoice study had two objectives: to identify aspects that office workers perceive as supporting or hindering their health, and to formulate novel questions about office work for quantitative studies [16]. However, each question should be clearly specified and should guide distinct aspects of data collection and analysis.

How specific should a qualitative research question be?

A good qualitative research question is focused enough to guide data collection but open enough to allow unexpected findings to emerge. The question should specify the participant group and context but should not assume what participants will say. Use the EPPiC framework to achieve this balance [10].

Should I preregister my qualitative study?

Preregistration can enhance the credibility of qualitative research by tracking flexibility, providing a check on subjectivity, and combating dissemination bias [9]. While qualitative research does not test hypotheses, preregistration can make the research process transparent. Some researchers object to preregistration because qualitative design is flexible and subjective, but these features can be tracked using preregistration [9].

What are the main qualitative research methodologies?

Qualitative methodologies include grounded theory, phenomenology, and ethnography [13]. Additional designs relevant to applied research include qualitative description, interpretive description, case study, and focused ethnography [10]. Each methodology has characteristic question types and analysis approaches.

How do I write a qualitative systematic review question?

A qualitative systematic review should be based on a well-planned protocol that outlines the research question and the processes used to undertake the review [7]. The protocol should specify key search terms, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and the methods used for critical appraisal, data extraction, and data analysis [7]. The review question should be developed with the same care as a primary research question.

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References and Further Reading

• Research Data Framework. National Institute of Standards and Technology.
• EQUATOR Network. EQUATOR Network.
• Experimental Design Assistant. NC3Rs.
• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
• Qualitative methods in implementation research: An introduction.. Psychiatry research, 2019.
• A Guide to Writing a Qualitative Systematic Review Protocol to Enhance Evidence-Based Practice in Nursing and Health Care.. Worldviews on evidence-based nursing, 2016.
• Qualitative Research in Clinical Epidemiology.. Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.), 2021.
• Preregistering qualitative research.. Accountability in research, 2019.
• Advancing qualitative health research approaches in applied nutrition research.. Journal of human nutrition and dietetics : the official journal of the British Dietetic Association, 2022.
• Narrative interviewing.. International journal of clinical pharmacy, 2016.
• Qualitative research essentials for medical education.. Singapore medical journal, 2018.
• Qualitative research: a review of methods with use of examples from the total knee replacement literature.. The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume, 2009.
• Learning to engage in clinical research: a qualitative study developing a behavioural pathway model among nurses in China.. 2026.
• Data-Mediated Entrepreneurship Education for Sustainability: A Design Science Research Study of the Smart Lunch Artifact in a Public-School Context. 2026.
• Framework for Health-Promoting Environments for Office Workers: Photovoice Study.. 2026.
• Fostering Rural High School Students' Creativity Through Making and Tinkering with 3D Printing.. 2026.
• Examination of Skill-Based Questions in the Subject Area of the Science Course “Living Things and Life” in Terms of Root Values. The Universal Academic Research Journal, 2024.
• Learning Practical and Research Skills through Emergency Remote Learning (ERL) Insights from Life Science Programs in Malaysian universities during the Covid-19 pandemic. International STEM Journal, 2022.
• Seeking Life Science Inno-vation Opportunities and Beyond: The Art of Blending Science, Medicine, and Business. Medical Research Archives, 2023.
• Evaluation Of Conscious Consumerism In Life Science Lesson According To The Opinions Of Teachers And Students. International Journal of Educational Research and Reviews, 2023.
• CRITICAL APPROACHES TO QUESTIONS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH. Critical Approaches to Questions in Qualitative Research, 2017.
• Approaches to sampling and case selection in qualitative research: Examples in the geography of health. Social Science and Medicine, 2000.
• Qualitative Migration Research: Viable Goals, Open-Ended Questions, and Multidimensional Answers. Imiscoe Research Series, 2018.
• Using circular questions as a tool in qualitative research. Nurse Researcher, 2016.
• Basics of research (part 13): Qualitative research - An example. Air Medical Journal, 1998.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.