Conducting Qualitative Interviews: A Guide for Life Science Researchers

Qualitative interviews are a primary data collection method for life science researchers who need to understand experiences, perceptions, and decision-making processes that cannot be captured through quantitative measurements alone. This guide covers the practical decisions involved in planning and conducting qualitative interviews, from selecting an interview type to developing questions and managing recordings. The content is designed for researchers at any career stage who are preparing to use interviews as part of a study, whether in clinical research, public health, nursing, or biomedical laboratory settings.

At a Glance: Choosing an Interview Approach

The table below summarizes the main interview formats and the conditions under which each is most appropriate. These distinctions matter because the choice of interview structure shapes every subsequent decision about question wording, sampling, and analysis.

The semi-structured interview is the most common format in health and life science research because it balances consistency with flexibility. A systematic methodological review of semi-structured interview guide development identified five phases that researchers should follow: identifying the prerequisites for using semi-structured interviews, retrieving and using previous knowledge, formulating the preliminary interview guide, pilot testing the guide, and presenting the complete guide. The review authors concluded that rigorous development of a semi-structured interview guide contributes to the objectivity and trustworthiness of studies and makes results more plausible. Researchers should consider using this five-step process and justify the decisions made during it. The source for this framework is a systematic methodological review published in the Journal of Advanced Nursing, available through PubMed at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27221824.

Understanding Qualitative Interviews in Life Science Research

Qualitative interviews are conversations with a purpose. Unlike casual conversation, research interviews are designed to generate data that answer a specific research question. In life science research, interviews are used to understand how patients experience illness and treatment, how clinicians make decisions, how researchers interpret their findings, and how communities respond to health interventions.

Interviews and focus groups are the most common data collection methods in qualitative research. A paper in the British Dental Journal examining these methods notes that they work differently in practice, are appropriate under different conditions, and offer distinct benefits. Interviews provide individual depth and privacy, while focus groups generate interaction among participants. For researchers deciding between these approaches, the choice depends on the research question, the sensitivity of the topic, and the population being studied. The source for this comparison is available through PubMed at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18356873.

The philosophical underpinnings of qualitative research differ fundamentally from quantitative approaches. A step-by-step guide to critiquing qualitative research in the British Journal of Nursing explains that qualitative and quantitative studies are fundamentally different approaches to research and need to be considered differently when evaluating quality. The subjective nature of qualitative research makes it more difficult to critique than quantitative work, but an evidence-based profession cannot accept research at face value. Researchers need to understand the strengths and limitations of qualitative studies when reviewing literature on a topic. This source is available through PubMed at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17851363.

For life science researchers trained primarily in quantitative methods, the shift to qualitative interviewing requires learning new theory and new methods of inquiry and data collection. A practical article in Medical Teacher introducing qualitative research interviews for novice researchers provides twelve tips for conducting qualitative research interviews. The authors note that many medical teachers and life science researchers undergo a steep learning curve when they first encounter qualitative interviews, both in terms of new theory and new methods. This source is available through PubMed at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30261797.

Types of Qualitative Interviews

Structured Interviews

Structured interviews use a fixed set of questions asked in the same order to every participant. The interviewer reads each question exactly as written and does not deviate from the script. Response options may be predetermined, or the interviewer may record verbatim answers to open-ended questions.

Structured interviews are appropriate when the research question is well defined and the researcher wants to compare responses across participants or groups. They are easier to standardize across multiple interviewers and produce data that can be summarized numerically. The tradeoff is that structured interviews cannot pursue unexpected topics that arise during the conversation, and participants may feel constrained by the fixed format.

Semi-Structured Interviews

Semi-structured interviews use an interview guide with core questions but allow the interviewer to probe for more detail and follow topics that emerge during the conversation. The guide ensures that all participants are asked about the same key topics, while the flexibility allows participants to raise issues the researcher did not anticipate.

The semi-structured interview is a common data collection method, but methodological research on the development of a semi-structured interview guide is sparse. The five-phase framework described earlier addresses this gap by providing a systematic approach to guide development. The phases are identifying prerequisites, retrieving previous knowledge, formulating the preliminary guide, pilot testing, and presenting the complete guide. This framework is described in the systematic methodological review available at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27221824.

Recent studies demonstrate the application of semi-structured interviews across life science contexts. A study of patients with left ventricular assist devices used a two-phase design in which a structured literature review of six databases informed the development of a semi-structured interview guide, followed by in-depth telephone interviews with 13 patients during home-based rehabilitation. The researchers analyzed interview data using reflexive thematic analysis and identified 52 sub-codes organized into 29 care need themes across four domains. This study is available at https://doi.org/10.1186/s13019-026-04568-x.

Another study exploring unmet supportive care needs of adolescent and young adult cancer patients used a co-designed semi-structured guide for virtual interviews with 16 participants. Thematic analysis revealed five major care gaps, including lack of standardized fertility counselling, neglected psycho-emotional impact, limited sexual health education and support, difficulty navigating the healthcare system, and financial toxicity. This study is available at https://doi.org/10.3390/curroncol33070412.

A study of young adults living with epilepsy used a semi-structured guide for individual virtual interviews with 12 participants aged 18 to 29 years. Reflexive thematic analysis identified a main theme of keeping balance on a moving platform, capturing how participants experienced living with epilepsy as a continuous balancing act within an unpredictable condition. This study is available at https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202607.1812.v1.

A study of medical students' perceptions of point-of-care ultrasound education conducted interviews with 13 final-year medical students and analyzed them using inductive thematic analysis. Reporting followed the Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research guidelines. The study is available at https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.108659.

Unstructured Interviews

Unstructured interviews have minimal predetermined structure. The interviewer may begin with a single opening question or topic and allow the conversation to develop according to the participant's responses. This format is used when the researcher knows very little about the topic and needs to discover what is important to participants.

Unstructured interviews require the most skill from the interviewer because there is no guide to fall back on. The interviewer must listen carefully, decide in the moment which threads to follow, and manage the conversation without dominating it. Data from unstructured interviews can be rich but are more difficult to compare across participants.

Developing the Interview Guide

Identifying Prerequisites

Before writing questions, the researcher must confirm that semi-structured interviews are the appropriate method for the research question. This means considering whether the research question requires in-depth understanding of experiences, perceptions, or decision-making processes, and whether the target population can participate in interviews. The first phase of the five-phase framework for semi-structured interview guide development involves identifying these prerequisites. This phase is described in the systematic methodological review at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27221824.

Retrieving and Using Previous Knowledge

The second phase involves reviewing existing literature to understand what is already known about the topic and to identify gaps that the interviews should address. This literature review serves multiple purposes. It helps the researcher formulate meaningful questions, avoid asking participants about things that are already well documented, and situate the new study within the existing evidence base.

The study of patients with left ventricular assist devices demonstrates this approach. The researchers conducted a structured literature review of six databases and synthesized eight relevant studies to inform the development of their semi-structured interview guide. This evidence-informed approach ensured that the interview questions built on existing knowledge instead of starting from scratch. The study is available at https://doi.org/10.1186/s13019-026-04568-x.

Formulating the Preliminary Guide

The third phase involves drafting the interview questions. Questions should be open-ended, neutral in wording, and focused on the participant's experiences instead of the researcher's assumptions. The guide should move from broader, easier questions to more specific or sensitive topics as the participant becomes more comfortable.

A common structure for a semi-structured interview guide includes an introduction that explains the purpose of the interview and obtains consent, warm-up questions that build rapport, core questions that address the main research topics, and closing questions that give the participant an opportunity to add anything they think is important.

Pilot Testing the Guide

The fourth phase involves testing the preliminary guide with a small number of participants who resemble the target population. Pilot testing serves several purposes. It reveals whether questions are clear and understandable, whether the flow of the interview works, how long the interview takes, and whether any questions produce unexpected responses or distress.

Pilot interviews should be recorded and reviewed critically. The researcher should note which questions worked well, which questions confused participants, and which topics participants raised that were not in the guide. Revisions should be made before the main data collection begins.

Presenting the Complete Guide

The fifth phase involves finalizing the guide and documenting the development process. The complete guide should be presented in the study methods section, along with a justification for the decisions made during development. This transparency allows readers to assess the quality of the interview guide and the trustworthiness of the findings. The five-phase framework and its contribution to objectivity and trustworthiness are described at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27221824.

Question Development Principles

Open-Ended Question Design

Interview questions should be open-ended to encourage participants to respond in their own words. Questions that can be answered with yes or no produce limited data and do not generate the depth needed for qualitative analysis. Instead of asking "Did you find the treatment difficult?", a researcher might ask "Can you describe what the treatment was like for you?"

The wording of questions matters. Questions should avoid leading language that suggests a preferred answer. They should be phrased in language the participant understands, which may require adjusting technical terms for patient populations or using appropriate terminology for professional participants.

Probing and Follow-Up Questions

The interview guide should include potential probes for each core question. Probes are follow-up questions that encourage participants to elaborate, clarify, or provide examples. Common probes include "Can you tell me more about that?", "What did that mean for you?", and "Can you give me an example?"

Probing is where the skill of the interviewer becomes most important. The interviewer must listen carefully to what the participant says and decide when to probe for more detail, when to move to the next question, and when to follow an unexpected topic that seems relevant to the research question.

Cultural Considerations in Question Design

Cultural competence is essential to credible qualitative research employing interview data. A paper in the Journal of Transcultural Nursing describes culturally competent qualitative research with Asian immigrants, particularly in the design, interview phases, and analysis. The authors synthesize strategies for cultural competence within a model that integrates literature review and data exemplars. These strategies include preparation of the research team, techniques for conducting research interviews with Asian immigrants, and attention to contextual meanings and timing of translation. This source is available through PubMed at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19141637.

For researchers working with populations from different cultural backgrounds, question design must account for cultural norms around communication, disclosure, and sensitive topics. What is appropriate to ask directly in one culture may need to be approached indirectly in another. Translation of interview materials and data requires attention to contextual meaning instead of literal word-for-word translation.

Conducting the Interviews

Interviewer Preparation

The interviewer must understand the study purpose, the interview guide, and the techniques for conducting qualitative interviews. For novice researchers, the twelve tips for conducting qualitative research interviews provide practical guidance. These tips address the learning curve that many life science researchers experience when they first encounter qualitative interviews, covering both new theory and new methods of inquiry and data collection. This source is available at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30261797.

Preparation includes practicing the interview, becoming familiar with the recording equipment, and anticipating how to handle difficult situations such as participants who become distressed, participants who give very brief answers, and participants who talk at length about topics unrelated to the research question.

Setting and Recording

Interviews can be conducted in person, by telephone, or through virtual communication tools. The choice of mode affects recruitment, data quality, and the participant experience. A viewpoint article in the Journal of the Nepal Medical Association reflects on the challenges and opportunities of conducting qualitative research fieldwork during the COVID-19 pandemic, noting that increasing numbers of researchers looked for alternative methods to complete data collection when in-person fieldwork became difficult. This source is available at https://doi.org/10.31729/jnma.5738.

Virtual interviews have become more common, and their use has continued beyond the pandemic. A study of young adults with epilepsy conducted individual virtual interviews, and a study of adolescent and young adult cancer patients used virtual interviews with a co-designed semi-structured guide. These studies demonstrate that virtual interviews can generate rich qualitative data when participants are comfortable with the technology and the interviewer manages the interaction effectively.

Recording is essential for qualitative interviews because the analysis requires verbatim transcripts. Audio recording is standard, and video recording may be used when visual information is important. The recording equipment should be tested before each interview, and a backup recording device should be available. Participants must consent to recording as part of the informed consent process.

Field Notes

Field notes are widely recommended in qualitative research as a means of documenting needed contextual information. A guide to field notes for qualitative research in Qualitative Health Research notes that with growing use of data sharing, secondary analysis, and metasynthesis, field notes ensure rich context persists beyond the original research team. The authors provide a concise guide to collection, incorporation, and dissemination of field notes, including a description of field note content for contextualization of an entire study as well as individual interviews and focus groups. They also provide two sketch note guides, one for study context and one for individual interviews or focus groups. This source is available through PubMed at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29298584.

Field notes should be written immediately after each interview while the details are fresh. They should capture observations about the setting, the participant's demeanor, any interruptions or technical problems, and the interviewer's impressions of how the interview went. These notes provide context that is not captured in the audio recording and are essential for rigorous qualitative research.

Managing Interview Data

Transcription

Transcription converts the audio recording into text for analysis. Transcription can be done by the researcher, by a professional transcription service, or with the assistance of software. The level of detail in the transcript depends on the analysis approach. Some approaches require verbatim transcription including pauses, hesitations, and nonverbal sounds, while others work with cleaned-up transcripts that remove these features.

The researcher should verify transcripts against the audio recordings, especially if transcription was outsourced. Errors in transcription can affect the analysis, and the researcher is responsible for the accuracy of the data.

Data Management and Security

Interview data are sensitive because they often contain personal health information, professional opinions, and details about participants' lives. Data management procedures must protect participant confidentiality and comply with institutional requirements and applicable regulations.

Audio recordings and transcripts should be stored securely, with access limited to the research team. Participants should be assigned codes that are used in transcripts and analysis, with the key linking codes to identities stored separately. The Research Data Framework from the National Institute of Standards and Technology provides guidance on managing research data throughout the research lifecycle. This resource is available at https://www.nist.gov/programs-projects/research-data-framework-rdaf.

Analysis Approaches

The analysis of qualitative interview data involves systematic procedures for identifying patterns and themes. Qualitative content analysis is one approach that has been described in the literature. A paper in Nurse Education Today provides an overview of important concepts related to qualitative content analysis, including manifest and latent content, unit of analysis, meaning unit, condensation, abstraction, content area, code, category, and theme. The paper illustrates the use of these concepts in the research procedure and proposes measures to achieve trustworthiness, including credibility, dependability, and transferability, throughout the steps of the research procedure. This source is available through PubMed at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14769454.

Thematic analysis is another common approach. Studies of patients with left ventricular assist devices, adolescent and young adult cancer patients, and young adults with epilepsy all used reflexive thematic analysis to analyze interview data. This approach involves reading and rereading the transcripts, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, and defining and naming themes.

Triangulation

Triangulation refers to the use of multiple methods or data sources in qualitative research to develop a comprehensive understanding of phenomena. A paper in Oncology Nursing Forum identifies four types of triangulation: method triangulation, investigator triangulation, theory triangulation, and data source triangulation. The paper discusses the use of focus groups and in-depth individual interviews as an example of data source triangulation in qualitative inquiry. This source is available through PubMed at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25158659.

For life science researchers, triangulation can strengthen a study by combining interviews with other data sources such as surveys, clinical records, or observational data. The use of multiple data sources allows the researcher to check findings against each other and develop a more complete understanding of the phenomenon under study.

Quality and Trustworthiness

Credibility

Credibility refers to the confidence in the truth of the findings. Strategies to enhance credibility include prolonged engagement with participants, member checking where participants review the researcher's interpretations, and triangulation of data sources or methods. The measures to achieve trustworthiness in qualitative content analysis are described in the Nurse Education Today paper at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14769454.

Dependability

Dependability refers to the stability of the data over time and under different conditions. An audit trail that documents the research process, including decisions about sampling, data collection, and analysis, supports dependability. Another researcher should be able to follow the audit trail and understand how the findings were derived.

Transferability

Transferability refers to the extent to which findings can be applied to other contexts. Thick description of the study context, participants, and findings allows readers to assess whether the findings are transferable to their own settings. The researcher's responsibility is to provide sufficient detail for readers to make this judgment.

Reporting Standards

Reporting guidelines help researchers present their qualitative studies transparently. The EQUATOR Network is an international initiative that provides resources for reporting health research, including guidelines for qualitative research. The network's website is available at https://www.equator-network.org/.

The Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research, commonly known as COREQ, is a checklist for reporting qualitative studies. A study of medical students' perceptions of point-of-care ultrasound education reported following COREQ guidelines, and a study of young adults with epilepsy reported following the Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research. These reporting standards help readers assess the quality of qualitative studies and support the critical appraisal of research.

Common Failure Patterns

Inadequate Preparation

A common failure in qualitative interviewing is inadequate preparation. Researchers who have not practiced the interview, tested the recording equipment, or thought through how to handle difficult situations are more likely to produce poor quality data. The five-phase framework for semi-structured interview guide development addresses this by requiring pilot testing before the main data collection begins.

Leading Questions

Questions that suggest a preferred answer produce data that reflect the researcher's assumptions instead of the participant's experiences. Leading questions can be subtle, such as asking "How difficult was the treatment?" when the participant might not have found it difficult at all. The pilot test is an opportunity to identify and revise leading questions.

Poor Probing

Interviewers who do not probe effectively miss opportunities to deepen the data. A participant may mention something important in passing, and the interviewer must recognize this and ask a follow-up question. Inexperienced interviewers may be so focused on getting through the guide that they fail to notice and pursue important topics.

Inconsistent Data Collection

When multiple interviewers are involved, inconsistency in how they ask questions and probe can affect the comparability of data across participants. Training and regular communication among interviewers can reduce this risk. The interview guide should be followed consistently, and interviewers should meet regularly to discuss how the interviews are going.

Inadequate Documentation

Failure to write field notes, document decisions, and maintain an audit trail undermines the trustworthiness of the study. The guide to field notes for qualitative research emphasizes that field notes ensure rich context persists beyond the original research team and are an essential component of ethical, rigorous qualitative research. This source is available at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29298584.

Limitations of Qualitative Interviews

Self-Report and Memory

Interview data rely on participants' self-reports, which may be affected by memory limitations, social desirability, and the participant's willingness to disclose. Participants may not remember events accurately, may present themselves in a favorable light, or may be reluctant to discuss sensitive topics. The researcher must consider these limitations when interpreting the data.

Interviewer Effects

The interviewer's characteristics, behavior, and relationship with the participant can affect what participants say. Participants may respond differently to interviewers of different genders, ages, or backgrounds. The researcher should reflect on how the interviewer may have influenced the data.

Sample Size and Generalizability

Qualitative interviews typically involve small samples that are not intended to be statistically representative. The goal is depth of understanding instead of generalizability. Findings from qualitative interviews may be transferable to similar contexts, but the researcher cannot make claims about the prevalence of experiences or perspectives in the broader population.

Time and Resource Intensity

Qualitative interviewing is time-intensive. Developing the guide, recruiting participants, conducting interviews, transcribing, and analyzing data all require substantial time and resources. Researchers should plan for this when designing their studies.

Professional Escalation Criteria

Researchers should recognize when they need additional support or expertise. The following situations warrant escalation to a supervisor, mentor, or research ethics committee:

• A participant becomes distressed during an interview and requires support beyond what the researcher can provide
• A participant discloses information that suggests risk of harm to themselves or others
• The researcher encounters ethical dilemmas that are not addressed in the study protocol
• The researcher is uncertain about how to handle a cultural or linguistic situation that affects the quality or ethics of the interview
• Data collection is not producing useful data and the researcher is uncertain whether the problem is the guide, the interviewer, or the sampling approach

The NCBI Literature Resources provide access to the biomedical literature that can help researchers address methodological questions. These resources are available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/. PubMed, the search interface for the National Library of Medicine, allows researchers to find methodological papers and examples of qualitative studies in their field. PubMed is available at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/.

Practical Implementation Steps

Before Data Collection

1. Confirm that qualitative interviews are the appropriate method for your research question
2. Conduct a literature review to understand existing knowledge and identify gaps
3. Develop the preliminary interview guide following the five-phase framework
4. Pilot test the guide with participants who resemble your target population
5. Revise the guide based on pilot testing
6. Obtain ethics approval and informed consent procedures
7. Train interviewers and practice the interview
8. Test recording equipment and arrange backup
9. Develop field note templates and data management procedures

During Data Collection

1. Conduct interviews following the guide while allowing flexibility for probing
2. Record interviews with participant consent
3. Write field notes immediately after each interview
4. Monitor data quality and adjust the guide if needed
5. Document any changes to the guide and the reasons for them
6. Arrange for transcription and verify transcript accuracy

After Data Collection

1. Organize transcripts and field notes
2. Conduct analysis using a systematic approach such as qualitative content analysis or thematic analysis
3. Use triangulation where appropriate to strengthen findings
4. Document the research process for the audit trail
5. Report the study following relevant reporting standards

Records and Measurements

The following records should be maintained for a qualitative interview study:

• The interview guide, including all versions and the rationale for changes
• Participant recruitment records, including who was approached, who agreed, and who declined
• Consent forms and documentation of the consent process
• Audio recordings and transcripts, stored securely
• Field notes for each interview
• An audit trail documenting decisions about sampling, data collection, and analysis
• Documentation of ethics approval and any amendments

These records support the trustworthiness of the study and allow other researchers to assess the quality of the research. The Research Data Framework from the National Institute of Standards and Technology provides guidance on managing research data throughout the research lifecycle, which can help researchers plan their data management procedures. This resource is available at https://www.nist.gov/programs-projects/research-data-framework-rdaf.

Safety and Ethical Context

Qualitative interviews in life science research often involve topics that are sensitive or emotionally difficult for participants. Researchers have a responsibility to protect participants from harm, maintain confidentiality, and ensure that participation is voluntary and informed.

The study of adolescent and young adult cancer patients identified unmet needs including neglected psycho-emotional impact and financial toxicity, topics that could be distressing for participants to discuss. The study of young adults with epilepsy explored experiences of living with an unpredictable condition, including cognitive challenges and concerns about safety and social participation. Researchers conducting interviews on such topics must be prepared to respond to participant distress and have procedures in place for referral to appropriate support services.

Research with children raises additional methodological and ethical challenges. A paper on conducting qualitative interviews with children identifies three key issues: power inequalities, competence, and parental gatekeeping. The paper concludes that using a combination of traditional and innovative techniques, and paying attention to taking a reflexive approach throughout the research process, are essential elements of research with children. This source is available at https://doi.org/10.14267/CJSSP.2017.02.04.

The Experimental Design Assistant from the NC3Rs is a tool that can help researchers plan and design their studies, including considerations of experimental design and reporting. While this tool is primarily associated with animal research, the principles of careful study design apply across research contexts. The tool is available at https://eda.nc3rs.org.uk/.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between structured, semi-structured, and unstructured interviews?

Structured interviews use a fixed set of questions asked in the same order to every participant, with limited flexibility. Semi-structured interviews use an interview guide with core questions but allow the interviewer to probe and follow topics that emerge. Unstructured interviews have minimal predetermined structure and allow the conversation to develop according to the participant's responses. The semi-structured format is the most common in life science research because it balances consistency with flexibility.

How many interviews do I need for a qualitative study?

There is no fixed number of interviews required for a qualitative study. The appropriate sample size depends on the research question, the scope of the study, and the point at which data saturation is reached, meaning that additional interviews are not generating new insights. Studies in the life science literature have used samples ranging from 12 to 16 participants for semi-structured interview studies, as seen in the studies of young adults with epilepsy, patients with left ventricular assist devices, and adolescent and young adult cancer patients.

How do I develop a semi-structured interview guide?

A systematic methodological review identified five phases for developing a semi-structured interview guide: identifying the prerequisites for using semi-structured interviews, retrieving and using previous knowledge, formulating the preliminary guide, pilot testing the guide, and presenting the complete guide. The review concluded that rigorous development of the guide contributes to the objectivity and trustworthiness of studies. This framework is described at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27221824.

Should I record my interviews?

Recording is essential for qualitative interviews because the analysis requires verbatim transcripts. Audio recording is standard, and video recording may be used when visual information is important. Participants must consent to recording as part of the informed consent process. The recording equipment should be tested before each interview, and a backup recording device should be available.

What are field notes and why are they important?

Field notes are written records of contextual information that is not captured in the audio recording. They document observations about the setting, the participant's demeanor, any interruptions or technical problems, and the interviewer's impressions. Field notes are widely recommended in qualitative research and ensure that rich context persists beyond the original research team, which is especially important with growing use of data sharing and secondary analysis. A guide to field notes is available at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29298584.

How do I ensure the trustworthiness of my qualitative interview study?

Trustworthiness in qualitative research is addressed through credibility, dependability, and transferability. Strategies include pilot testing the interview guide, using triangulation of data sources or methods, maintaining an audit trail, providing thick description of the study context, and reporting the study following established reporting standards. Measures to achieve trustworthiness throughout the research procedure are described at https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14769454.

Can I conduct qualitative interviews virtually?

Yes, virtual interviews using telephone or video communication tools are an accepted method for qualitative data collection. The COVID-19 pandemic led many researchers to adopt virtual methods, and their use has continued. Studies of young adults with epilepsy and adolescent and young adult cancer patients both used virtual interviews successfully. Researchers should consider the participant's access to technology and comfort with virtual communication when choosing this mode.

What should I do if a participant becomes distressed during an interview?

Researchers have a responsibility to protect participants from harm. If a participant becomes distressed, the interviewer should pause the interview, offer support, and ask the participant whether they want to continue. The study protocol should include procedures for responding to distress and referral to appropriate support services. Researchers should escalate to a supervisor or research ethics committee if they encounter situations that are beyond their capacity to manage.

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References and Further Reading

• Research Data Framework. National Institute of Standards and Technology.
• EQUATOR Network. EQUATOR Network.
• Experimental Design Assistant. NC3Rs.
• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
• Systematic methodological review: developing a framework for a qualitative semi-structured interview guide.. Journal of advanced nursing, 2016.
• Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: concepts, procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness.. Nurse education today, 2004.
• The use of triangulation in qualitative research.. Oncology nursing forum, 2014.
• Methods of data collection in qualitative research: interviews and focus groups.. British dental journal, 2008.
• Step-by-step guide to critiquing research. Part 2: Qualitative research.. British journal of nursing (Mark Allen Publishing), 2007.
• Cultural competence in qualitative interview methods with Asian immigrants.. Journal of transcultural nursing : official journal of the Transcultural Nursing Society, 2009.
• Twelve tips for conducting qualitative research interviews.. Medical teacher, 2019.
• A Guide to Field Notes for Qualitative Research: Context and Conversation.. Qualitative health research, 2018.
• Home care challenges and adaptive capacity in patients with left ventricular assist devices: an evidence-informed qualitative study.. 2026.
• Exploring Key Unmet Supportive Care Needs of Adolescent and Young Adult Cancer Patients: A Qualitative Study to Inform Regional Program Development.. 2026.
• The use and methodological reporting of large language models in qualitative research: a scoping review.. 2026.
• Keeping Balance on a Moving Platform: A Qualitative Interview Study of Young Adults Living with Epilepsy. 2026.
• Medical Students' Perceptions of Point-of-Care Ultrasound Education: A Qualitative Interview Study.. 2026.
• Conducting Qualitative Interviews using Virtual Communication Tools amid COVID-19 Pandemic: A Learning Opportunity for Future Research. JNMA, journal of the Nepal Medical Association, 2020.
• PCR168 The Changing Face of Qualitative Interviewing in Clinical Outcome Assessments Research: Conducting Qualitative Interviews Post COVID-19. Value in Health, 2022.
• Conducting qualitative interviews with children- methodological and ethical challenges. 2017.
• Challenges for Preventive Digital Stress Management Systems - Identifying Requirements by Conducting Qualitative Interviews. Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2019.
• Asynchronous email interview as a qualitative research method in the humanities. Human Affairs, 2014.
• Comparison of Literature Review, Social Media Listening, and Qualitative Interview Research Methods in Generating Patient-Reported Symptom and Functional Impact Concepts of Presbyopia. Ophthalmology and Therapy, 2023.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.