Public Health Scientist Careers: From Research to Practice

Public health scientists apply biological, environmental, social, and quantitative methods to protect population health. This article maps the main career pathways in public health science, compares education requirements and work settings across roles, and explains how research translates into policy, laboratory practice, and community action. Readers will learn how to assess their fit for different career tracks, what records and competencies matter for advancement, and when to seek professional guidance about licensure or specialization.

Defining the Public Health Scientist Role

A public health scientist is a professional who generates, interprets, or applies scientific evidence to prevent disease, prolong life, and promote health at the population level. Unlike clinical scientists who focus on individual patients, public health scientists study patterns of disease, environmental exposures, behavioral risk factors, health systems, and the effectiveness of interventions across communities.

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics groups many of these professionals under life, physical, and social science occupations, which includes epidemiologists, environmental scientists, and medical scientists [1]. Other public health scientists work within healthcare occupations, particularly those who bridge clinical practice and population health [2]. The U.S. Department of Labor's O*NET OnLine provides detailed task inventories and skill requirements for each of these occupations, making it a practical tool for comparing day-to-day responsibilities across roles [3].

Public health science careers fall into several broad categories. Research scientists design studies, collect and analyze data, and publish findings. Policy scientists translate evidence into regulations, guidelines, and program recommendations. Laboratory scientists conduct diagnostic testing, environmental monitoring, and biomolecular analysis. Practice-based scientists work within healthcare systems, government agencies, or community organizations to implement and evaluate interventions.

The boundaries between these categories are fluid. A scientist may begin in laboratory work and later move into policy, or start in research and transition to program management. Understanding the core competencies of each track helps professionals make deliberate career decisions instead of drifting between roles.

Core Competencies Across Public Health Science Careers

Every public health scientist needs a foundation in research methods, data analysis, and scientific communication. The depth and emphasis of these competencies vary by role, but the underlying skills transfer across settings.

Epidemiological reasoning is central to most public health science work. Scientists must understand study designs, bias, confounding, and causal inference to interpret evidence correctly. This includes knowing when a study finding supports a policy change and when it only generates hypotheses for further research.

Data management and statistical analysis are equally important. Public health scientists work with surveillance data, survey responses, clinical records, and environmental measurements. The ability to clean, analyze, and visualize data determines whether evidence becomes actionable. The U.S. Department of Labor's O*NET OnLine lists data analysis and critical thinking among the core skills for life and physical science occupations [3].

Scientific writing and oral communication distinguish effective scientists. Research findings have no public health impact if they remain in spreadsheets or laboratory notebooks. Scientists must write grant proposals, journal articles, internal reports, and plain-language summaries for policymakers and community audiences.

Laboratory and field safety competencies apply to scientists who handle biological specimens, chemicals, or environmental samples. Proper documentation, chain-of-custody procedures, and quality control are non-negotiable in regulated settings.

Research Scientist Career Paths

Research scientists in public health generate new knowledge through observational studies, clinical trials, laboratory experiments, and implementation research. They work in universities, government agencies, nonprofit research institutes, and private industry.

Academic Research Careers

University-based public health scientists typically hold faculty appointments in schools of public health, medical schools, or affiliated research centers. Their work combines independent research, teaching, and mentoring. Academic careers require a doctoral degree, usually a PhD in epidemiology, biostatistics, environmental health, or a related field. Some academic scientists hold a Doctor of Public Health (DrPH) or a medical degree with research training.

The National Institutes of Health Office of Intramural Training and Education describes training pathways for scientists who want to conduct research within the federal government [4]. These programs provide structured mentorship and access to resources that are difficult to replicate in university settings. Trainees work alongside established investigators and gain experience with large-scale data resources and laboratory infrastructure.

Academic research careers depend on sustained grant funding. Scientists write proposals to federal agencies, foundations, and industry sponsors. Success requires a track record of publications, preliminary data, and collaborative relationships. Early-career scientists often start with mentored awards before applying for independent investigator grants.

Government Research Careers

Government agencies employ public health scientists to conduct research that directly informs policy and practice. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Environmental Protection Agency, the Food and Drug Administration, and state health departments all maintain research programs.

Government research scientists may work on disease surveillance, outbreak investigations, environmental exposure assessment, or program evaluation. Their findings feed directly into regulatory decisions, clinical guidelines, and public health messaging. The National Institutes of Health Office of Intramural Training and Education notes that government research offers stable funding and access to unique data resources that are not available elsewhere [4].

Career progression in government research often follows a structured ladder from entry-level analyst to senior investigator. Advancement depends on scientific productivity, leadership of collaborative projects, and the ability to communicate findings to non-scientist decision-makers.

Industry Research Careers

Pharmaceutical companies, biotechnology firms, and health technology companies employ public health scientists for drug development, real-world evidence generation, and market access research. These roles apply epidemiological and biostatistical methods to product development and post-market surveillance.

A report on career paths through the U.S. Food and Drug Administration found that students who completed experiential training in regulatory science entered industry and government roles at higher rates than national averages [17]. The report tracked 199 students over a 12-year period and found that 51% worked in the pharmaceutical industry, 24% in healthcare, 6% in government, and 4% as consultants [17]. This pattern suggests that structured exposure to regulatory science can open career pathways that students may not otherwise consider.

Industry research careers typically require strong quantitative skills and the ability to work within regulatory timelines. Scientists in these roles must understand the evidence standards for product approval, labeling, and post-market surveillance.

Policy and Regulatory Science Careers

Policy scientists translate research evidence into regulations, guidelines, and program standards. They work in government agencies, legislative offices, advocacy organizations, and international health bodies.

Regulatory Science Roles

Regulatory scientists evaluate evidence to make decisions about product safety, environmental standards, and public health interventions. They review clinical trial data, environmental monitoring results, and post-market surveillance reports. Their decisions determine whether products enter the market, what warnings appear on labels, and what exposure limits protect workers and communities.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration report on career paths describes regulatory science as a field that supports drug development and public health through non-patient-facing roles [17]. Scientists in these positions review applications, design guidance documents, and conduct research that informs regulatory standards. The report emphasizes that pharmacy students have limited exposure to these career options, which suggests a broader pattern of under-awareness about regulatory science careers across health professions [17].

Regulatory science careers require meticulous attention to detail, the ability to interpret complex evidence under uncertainty, and strong writing skills. Scientists must document their reasoning clearly because regulatory decisions are subject to legal challenge and public scrutiny.

Health Policy Analysis

Health policy analysts use research evidence to evaluate existing programs, model the impact of proposed policies, and recommend changes to health systems. They work in government budget offices, legislative committees, think tanks, and advocacy organizations.

Policy analysis requires skills in health economics, program evaluation, and systems thinking. Analysts must understand how financing mechanisms, delivery models, and regulatory frameworks interact to produce health outcomes. Their work informs decisions about insurance coverage, provider payment, public health funding, and environmental standards.

The National Center for Biotechnology Information provides literature resources that policy analysts use to stay current with research evidence [5]. PubMed, maintained by the National Library of Medicine, indexes the biomedical literature and allows scientists to search for studies relevant to policy questions [6]. These tools are essential for evidence-based policy work.

Advocacy and Science Communication

Some public health scientists engage in advocacy to translate research findings into policy action. This work requires a different skill set than laboratory or statistical work, but it builds on the same evidence base.

A perspective in Pediatric Clinics of North America describes advocacy as a learnable skill, comparable to other professional competencies [7]. The article cites the example of scientists who discovered the destruction of stratospheric ozone by chlorofluorocarbons and then worked to ban these chemicals. When asked why they left the laboratory to advocate, one scientist responded with a question about personal responsibility and timing [7]. This example illustrates that advocacy can be a natural extension of research when findings have clear policy implications.

Scientists who pursue advocacy must maintain credibility by distinguishing their scientific findings from their policy recommendations. They must also understand the political and legal context in which decisions are made. Advocacy skills include public speaking, media engagement, coalition building, and legislative testimony.

Laboratory and Field Science Careers

Laboratory and field scientists generate the empirical data that underpin public health research and practice. They analyze clinical specimens, environmental samples, food products, and occupational exposures.

Diagnostic and Reference Laboratory Roles

Public health laboratories conduct diagnostic testing for infectious diseases, genetic conditions, and environmental exposures. Scientists in these settings operate sophisticated instruments, validate test methods, and interpret results for clinicians and public health officials.

Laboratory scientists must follow strict quality control procedures to ensure accurate results. They document every step of the testing process, maintain equipment calibration records, and participate in proficiency testing programs. Errors in laboratory testing can lead to misdiagnosis, inappropriate treatment, or failure to detect disease outbreaks.

The National Institutes of Health Office of Intramural Training and Education describes training opportunities for laboratory-based research careers [4]. These programs expose trainees to advanced technologies and research methods that are not available in all academic settings.

Environmental Health Science Roles

Environmental health scientists measure exposures to chemicals, pollutants, and other hazards in air, water, soil, and food. They design sampling strategies, conduct field measurements, and interpret results against regulatory standards.

A study in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health examined whether hazardous-waste-site testing follows government technical guidance [12]. The study found that most volatile-organic-compound waste-site testing that was investigated violated government technical requirements and systematically underestimated risks [12]. This finding has implications for environmental justice because inadequate testing can justify less expensive cleanups in communities that are already overburdened by pollution [12].

Environmental health scientists must understand sampling design, analytical chemistry, and risk assessment. They must also recognize when testing protocols are inadequate and advocate for more rigorous methods. The study authors suggest that following government technical guidance promotes reliable risk analysis and environmental health protection [12].

Forensic Science Applications

Forensic scientists apply scientific methods to legal investigations, including death investigation and criminal cases. Public health scientists in this field work with medical examiners, law enforcement, and the justice system.

A report in the Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services describes how forensic nursing evolved from a narrow role in death investigation to a broader clinical subspecialty [10]. The report notes that health care providers share responsibility with forensic scientists and the criminal justice system for survivors of violent crime and perpetrators of criminal acts [10]. Nurses bring observation, clinical, and communication skills to death investigation [10].

Forensic science careers require attention to chain-of-custody procedures, documentation standards, and legal testimony. Scientists must be prepared to explain their methods and findings to judges and juries.

Education and Training Pathways

The education required for public health science careers varies by role and setting. Understanding these requirements helps students and professionals plan their training.

Undergraduate Preparation

A bachelor's degree in biology, chemistry, public health, statistics, or a related field provides the foundation for most public health science careers. Undergraduate coursework should include mathematics through calculus, introductory statistics, biology, chemistry, and research methods.

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics notes that life, physical, and social science occupations typically require a bachelor's degree for entry-level positions [1]. Some roles, particularly those involving independent research or laboratory direction, require graduate education.

Undergraduate research experience is valuable for career preparation. Students who participate in research projects learn laboratory techniques, data analysis, and scientific communication. They also develop relationships with mentors who can provide guidance and letters of recommendation.

Graduate Education

Master's degrees in public health (MPH), epidemiology, biostatistics, environmental health, or related fields prepare graduates for research and practice roles. MPH programs typically include coursework in epidemiology, biostatistics, health policy, and environmental health. Some programs offer concentrations in specific areas such as maternal and child health, global health, or health equity.

Doctoral programs provide advanced training in research methods and independent investigation. PhD programs typically require coursework, comprehensive examinations, and a dissertation based on original research. DrPH programs emphasize practice-based leadership and may require a doctoral project instead of a traditional dissertation.

The National Institutes of Health Office of Intramural Training and Education describes training pathways for scientists at multiple career stages [4]. These programs include summer internships, postbaccalaureate fellowships, graduate training, and postdoctoral positions. Each stage builds on the previous one and provides increasing independence.

Experiential Training and Rotations

Hands-on training experiences can shape career trajectories in public health science. A report on a maternal health summer program for high school students found that early exposure to health-related disciplines increased interest in public health careers [15]. The program included training modules in pharmacy practice, environmental health science, and community health work [15]. Student engagement was high, with participation ranging from 83 to 100% and quiz scores ranging from 80 to 97% [15].

Experiential training continues through graduate education and beyond. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration report described advanced pharmacy practice experiences that exposed students to regulatory science careers [17]. Students who completed these rotations entered industry and government roles at higher rates than national surveys would predict [17].

Project SCORE, a community-engaged science education program in Mississippi, demonstrated that near-peer mentoring and hands-on research can increase STEM self-efficacy and career interest among historically excluded youth [18]. The program engaged teens in public health education, research skill development, and mentored inquiry [18]. Pre and post survey data indicated increases in STEM self-efficacy, career interest, and public health communication skills [18].

At a Glance: Comparing Public Health Scientist Roles

The following table compares common public health scientist roles across education requirements, work settings, and primary activities.

Practical Steps for Entering Public Health Science

Professionals entering public health science should follow a structured approach to career development.

Step 1: Assess Your Interests and Skills

Begin by identifying which aspects of public health science appeal to you. Do you enjoy working with data, conducting laboratory experiments, or communicating with policymakers? Do you prefer independent research or collaborative team projects? Do you want to work in a university, government agency, or private company?

The U.S. Department of Labor's O*NET OnLine provides detailed descriptions of occupations, including tasks, skills, and work activities [3]. Reviewing these profiles can help you compare roles and identify which ones match your interests.

Step 2: Build Foundational Competencies

Develop strong skills in mathematics, statistics, and scientific writing. These competencies are essential across all public health science careers. Take courses in epidemiology, biostatistics, and research methods. Seek opportunities to apply these skills through research projects, internships, or volunteer work.

Step 3: Gain Hands-On Experience

Participate in research projects, laboratory rotations, or public health programs. The National Institutes of Health Office of Intramural Training and Education offers training programs at multiple career stages [4]. These programs provide structured mentorship and exposure to cutting-edge research.

Experiential training can also come from community-based programs. The maternal health summer program described in the Frontiers in Public Health report demonstrated that structured training modules combined with hands-on research projects can increase career interest [15]. Look for similar opportunities in your area.

Step 4: Pursue Appropriate Graduate Education

Research the education requirements for your target roles. Some positions require only a bachelor's degree, while others require a master's or doctoral degree. Consider the return on investment for each degree path, including tuition costs, time to completion, and expected salary.

Step 5: Build a Professional Network

Attend conferences, join professional organizations, and connect with scientists in your field. Mentors can provide guidance on career decisions, introduce you to opportunities, and advocate for your advancement. The National Center for Biotechnology Information provides literature resources that can help you stay current with research in your field [5].

Records and Measurements for Career Advancement

Public health scientists should maintain records that document their competencies and contributions. These records support promotion decisions, grant applications, and job searches.

Publication Record

Maintain a complete list of your publications, including journal articles, reports, and conference presentations. For each publication, note your role, the journal or venue, and the date. Use PubMed to verify citation information and track how your work is cited by others [6].

Research Portfolio

Document your research projects, including study designs, data collection methods, and analytical approaches. Note your specific contributions to each project. This portfolio demonstrates your ability to conduct independent research and collaborate with others.

Training and Certification Records

Keep records of your degrees, certificates, and professional development activities. Some public health science roles require specific certifications, such as those offered by professional organizations. Verify the requirements for your target roles and pursue relevant credentials.

Performance Evaluations

Retain copies of performance evaluations, teaching evaluations, and letters of recommendation. These documents provide evidence of your competencies and contributions when you apply for promotions or new positions.

Common Failure Patterns in Public Health Science Careers

Understanding common career pitfalls helps professionals avoid them.

Narrow Skill Development

Scientists who focus exclusively on one technical skill may struggle when job markets shift. A researcher who only knows one statistical software package or one laboratory technique has limited options. Develop transferable skills in data analysis, scientific writing, and project management.

Inadequate Documentation

Laboratory scientists and field researchers must document their work meticulously. Poor documentation can invalidate research findings, compromise regulatory submissions, or create legal liability. The study on hazardous-waste-site testing found that inadequate testing practices systematically underestimated risks [12]. This pattern can result from poor documentation as well as deliberate shortcuts.

Neglecting Professional Networks

Scientists who work in isolation miss opportunities for collaboration, mentorship, and career advancement. A study on gender bias in academic medicine found that subtle differences in evaluation and cultural assumptions can constrain opportunities for women [9]. Building strong networks and seeking mentors can help counteract these patterns.

Ignoring Work-Life Integration

Public health science careers can be demanding, particularly in academic and government settings. A study of experienced general practitioners in South West England found that escalating workloads, moral distress, and reduced control drove burnout and exit from clinical work [20]. The study identified clear workload boundaries, continuity of care, supportive systems, and portfolio careers as factors that supported retention [20]. These findings apply to public health scientists as well as clinicians.

Limitations and Professional Escalation Criteria

Public health scientists must recognize the limits of their expertise and know when to seek guidance from other professionals.

Recognizing Knowledge Gaps

No single scientist has expertise in all aspects of public health science. A biostatistician may need guidance from an environmental health scientist about exposure assessment. A laboratory scientist may need input from an epidemiologist about study design. Recognize when a question falls outside your expertise and consult appropriate colleagues.

Licensure and Regulatory Requirements

Some public health science roles require licensure or certification. A study of international medical graduates in Canada found that pathways to licensure vary from direct-to-practice pathways to years of examinations and residency applications [16]. The study identified financial concerns, adjustment to a new healthcare system, discrimination, and limitations in practice location as challenges faced before licensure and early in careers [16]. Professionals should research the licensure requirements for their target roles and jurisdiction.

Escalation Criteria

Seek professional guidance when you encounter any of the following situations:

• You are asked to interpret data or make recommendations outside your area of expertise
• You observe potential violations of safety protocols or regulatory requirements
• You are uncertain about the ethical implications of a research or practice decision
• You are considering a career transition that requires additional education or licensure
• You experience discrimination, harassment, or bias in your workplace

A study on gender bias in academic medicine found that stereotype-based cognitive biases can shape the experiences of women in ways that constrain their opportunities [9]. The study described an approach that treats gender bias as a remedial habit, which can change individual behaviors and improve department climate [9]. If you experience bias, seek support from mentors, human resources, or professional organizations.

Career Transitions and Portfolio Careers

Public health scientists increasingly build portfolio careers that combine multiple roles. A scientist might work part-time in a university, consult for a government agency, and serve on a nonprofit board. Portfolio careers provide flexibility and resilience in changing job markets.

A study of experienced general practitioners in South West England found that portfolio careers supported retention in clinical work [20]. The study described how some GPs maintained engagement by reshaping their roles or practice structures to regain control and sustain meaning [20]. Similar patterns apply to public health scientists who combine research, teaching, consulting, and advocacy.

Career transitions between sectors are common. Scientists move between academic, government, industry, and nonprofit settings. Each transition requires learning new norms, building new networks, and adapting to different incentive structures.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration report described how experiential training can open career pathways in regulatory science [17]. Students who completed rotations in the Office of Clinical Pharmacology entered industry and government roles at higher rates than national surveys would predict [17]. This finding suggests that structured exposure to different career settings can shape professional trajectories.

Workforce Trends and Job Market Considerations

Public health science careers are shaped by broader workforce trends. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics provides employment projections for life, physical, and social science occupations [1] and healthcare occupations [2]. These projections help professionals understand job market conditions and plan their training.

A study published in Patterns described a data resource derived from over 42 million unstructured job postings in the National Labor Exchange [8]. The study used natural language processing to model associations between occupation codes, skill keywords, job titles, and full-text job descriptions [8]. This resource can help job seekers understand the skills employers seek and how job titles map to occupation codes [8].

The study on occupational models noted that structuring jobs into occupations is the first step for analysis tasks in economics and public health, as well as for practical applications like matching job seekers to available jobs [8]. The models are openly available in a Python package that can assign occupation codes to job titles and parse skills from job postings and resumes [8].

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between a public health scientist and a clinical scientist?

A public health scientist studies health at the population level, focusing on disease patterns, environmental exposures, and interventions that affect communities. A clinical scientist studies health at the individual level, focusing on diagnosis, treatment, and patient outcomes. Public health scientists may work in laboratories, government agencies, or universities, while clinical scientists typically work in healthcare settings. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics groups public health scientists under life, physical, and social science occupations [1] and clinical scientists under healthcare occupations [2].

What education do I need to become a public health scientist?

The education required depends on the specific role. Entry-level positions in laboratory science or environmental health may require only a bachelor's degree. Research and policy roles typically require a master's degree, such as an MPH or MS in a relevant field. Independent research careers usually require a doctoral degree, such as a PhD or DrPH. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics notes that life, physical, and social science occupations typically require a bachelor's degree for entry [1].

What is the typical salary for public health science jobs?

Salary varies widely by role, education, experience, and work setting. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics provides wage data for life, physical, and social science occupations [1] and healthcare occupations [2]. Government and academic salaries may differ from industry salaries. Professionals should research salary data for their specific role and geographic region.

Can I work as a public health scientist with a bachelor's degree?

Yes, some entry-level positions are available with a bachelor's degree. Laboratory technician roles, environmental sampling positions, and research assistant positions may require only a bachelor's degree. However, advancement to independent research or leadership roles typically requires graduate education. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics notes that some life, physical, and social science occupations require graduate education for entry [1].

How do I transition from laboratory work to policy work?

Transitioning from laboratory work to policy work requires developing new competencies in policy analysis, scientific communication, and stakeholder engagement. Seek opportunities to communicate your research findings to non-scientist audiences. Volunteer for committees or working groups that address policy questions. Consider pursuing additional education, such as an MPH or MPP, to build policy skills. The National Institutes of Health Office of Intramural Training and Education describes training pathways that can support career transitions [4].

What skills do employers look for in public health scientists?

Employers look for strong quantitative skills, research methods, scientific writing, and communication abilities. The U.S. Department of Labor's O*NET OnLine provides detailed skill profiles for life, physical, and social science occupations [3]. The occupational models study found that skill keywords can be parsed from job postings to understand employer requirements [8]. Review job postings in your target roles to identify the specific skills employers seek.

How do I find public health researcher jobs?

Search job boards maintained by government agencies, universities, and professional organizations. The National Institutes of Health Office of Intramural Training and Education lists training and employment opportunities [4]. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics provides occupational outlook information that can help you understand job market conditions [1]. Professional conferences and networking events also provide opportunities to learn about open positions.

What are the career advancement opportunities for public health scientists?

Career advancement typically involves moving from entry-level analyst or technician roles to independent investigator or leadership positions. Advancement may require additional education, a strong publication record, and demonstrated leadership of collaborative projects. Some scientists advance into management roles, directing laboratories, research programs, or policy offices. The National Institutes of Health Office of Intramural Training and Education describes career stages from trainee to independent investigator [4].

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References and Further Reading

• Life, Physical, and Social Science Occupations. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
• Healthcare Occupations. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
• O*NET OnLine. U.S. Department of Labor.
• Office of Intramural Training and Education. National Institutes of Health.
• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
• Pediatric advocacy.. Pediatric clinics of North America, 2001.
• Occupational models from 42 million unstructured job postings.. Patterns (New York, N.Y.), 2023.
• Why is John More Likely to Become Department Chair Than Jennifer?. Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association, 2015.
• Forensic nursing. Diversity in education and practice.. Journal of psychosocial nursing and mental health services, 1993.
• The age-dependent influence of self-reported health and job characteristics on retirement.. International journal of public health, 2013.
• Does Hazardous-Waste Testing Follow Technical Guidance, Thus Help Protect Environmental Justice and Health?. International journal of environmental research and public health, 2022.
• Optimizing the Role of the Hospital-Based Nurse Scientist in a Changing Nursing Environment: Recommendations for Nurse Leaders.. Nursing administration quarterly, 2023.
• Evaluation of Automatically Assigned Job-Specific Interview Modules.. The Annals of occupational hygiene, 2016.
• Development of a maternal health summer program curriculum to expose high school students to pharmacy, environmental health science, and community health worker careers.. 2026.
• Navigating licensure and practice in Canada: A qualitative study of barriers and supports among international medical graduates.. 2026.
• Career Paths to Drug Development and Regulatory Science Through the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.. 2026.
• Project SCORE (Student-Centered Outcomes Research Experience).. 2026.
• Career Choice and Career Change Among South African Health Professions: A Qualitative Study. 2026.
• Sustaining a career in general practice: a qualitative study of experienced GPs in South West England.. 2026.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.