Biomes in AP Environmental Science: A Study and Career Guide

Biomes are large-scale ecological communities defined by climate, vegetation, and animal life, and they form a foundational concept in AP Environmental Science. This article explains how biomes are classified, why they matter for ecosystem function and biodiversity, and how biome knowledge translates into environmental careers. Students preparing for the AP Environmental Science exam will find a biome comparison table, study strategies, and career pathways. Researchers and life-science professionals can use this material to review core concepts and consider how biome-level thinking applies to their work.

What Are Biomes in Environmental Science

A biome is a major ecological community type that extends over a large geographic area and is characterized by distinct climate conditions, dominant plant forms, and associated animal communities. In AP Environmental Science, biomes are studied as units of analysis that connect climate patterns to ecosystem structure and function. The distribution of biomes across Earth follows predictable patterns based on temperature, precipitation, latitude, and altitude.

Terrestrial biomes include tropical rainforests, tropical dry forests, tropical savannas, deserts, temperate grasslands, temperate shrublands, temperate forests, boreal forests, and tundra. Aquatic biomes include freshwater systems such as lakes, rivers, and wetlands, as well as marine systems such as oceans, coral reefs, and estuaries. Each biome has characteristic adaptations among its resident species, and these adaptations shape nutrient cycling, energy flow, and ecosystem services.

The study of biomes in AP Environmental Science extends beyond simple classification. Students must understand how biomes respond to disturbance, how human activities alter biome boundaries, and how climate change shifts the distribution of biomes over time. This systems-level perspective prepares students for the exam and for environmental careers that require spatial and ecological reasoning.

Climate as the Primary Driver of Biome Distribution

Temperature and precipitation are the two dominant climatic variables that determine where biomes occur. Mean annual temperature influences the length of the growing season, the rate of decomposition, and the availability of liquid water. Precipitation determines whether an ecosystem supports forests, grasslands, or deserts. The interaction of these two variables produces the characteristic vegetation structure of each biome.

Latitude creates a predictable gradient from the equator to the poles. Tropical biomes near the equator receive high solar energy year-round and support high productivity. Temperate biomes experience seasonal variation in temperature and day length. Boreal and polar biomes have short growing seasons and low productivity. Altitude mimics latitude, so mountain ranges can contain multiple biomes stacked vertically from base to summit.

Climate also influences soil development, which in turn affects nutrient availability and plant growth. Tropical rainforests have highly weathered, nutrient-poor soils despite their lush vegetation because rapid decomposition and plant uptake cycle nutrients quickly. Temperate grasslands develop deep, fertile soils that support agriculture. Desert soils are often shallow and saline due to low leaching and high evaporation.

Ocean currents and atmospheric circulation patterns create additional variation in biome distribution. Coastal biomes are moderated by marine influences, while continental interiors experience more extreme temperature ranges. Rain shadows on the leeward side of mountain ranges create deserts even at mid-latitudes. These regional climate effects explain why biome boundaries are not perfectly aligned with latitude.

Terrestrial Biomes in AP Environmental Science

Tropical Rainforests

Tropical rainforests occur near the equator where temperatures are warm year-round and precipitation exceeds 200 centimeters annually. These biomes have the highest biodiversity of any terrestrial ecosystem, with complex vertical stratification into emergent, canopy, understory, and forest floor layers. Nutrient cycling is rapid, and most nutrients are stored in living biomass instead of in soil.

The AP Environmental Science curriculum emphasizes tropical rainforests as examples of high primary productivity and high species richness. Students learn about the threats facing these biomes, including deforestation for agriculture, logging, and mining. The loss of tropical rainforests has global implications for carbon storage, climate regulation, and biodiversity conservation.

Tropical Savannas

Savannas are grasslands with scattered trees that occur in tropical and subtropical regions with distinct wet and dry seasons. Fire is a natural and important ecological process in savannas, maintaining the balance between grasses and woody vegetation. Large herbivores such as elephants, giraffes, and zebras are characteristic of African savannas.

Savannas illustrate the concept of disturbance ecology in AP Environmental Science. Periodic fires prevent tree encroachment and recycle nutrients into the soil. Human alteration of fire regimes, through fire suppression or excessive burning, can shift savanna ecosystems toward either grassland or woodland states. Indigenous fire management practices have shaped savanna ecosystems for millennia and continue to influence their structure and biodiversity.

Deserts

Deserts receive less than 25 centimeters of precipitation annually and are characterized by extreme temperature fluctuations between day and night. Desert organisms exhibit remarkable adaptations for water conservation, including succulent stems, reduced leaf surfaces, deep root systems, and nocturnal activity patterns. Desert soils are often sandy or rocky with low organic content.

Deserts cover approximately one-fifth of Earth's land surface and are expanding in some regions due to desertification. Overgrazing, unsustainable agriculture, and climate change can convert marginal grasslands into desert conditions. AP Environmental Science students study desertification as an example of human-induced biome shift with serious consequences for food security and human livelihoods.

Temperate Grasslands

Temperate grasslands, also called prairies or steppes, occur in continental interiors where precipitation is moderate but insufficient to support forests. These biomes have deep, nutrient-rich soils that make them highly valuable for agriculture. The original vegetation consisted of perennial grasses and forbs adapted to grazing and fire.

Most temperate grasslands have been converted to cropland or rangeland, making them among the most threatened biomes globally. The loss of grassland habitat has reduced populations of grassland birds, pollinators, and other native species. Conservation efforts focus on restoring native grassland communities and maintaining working landscapes that support both agriculture and biodiversity.

Temperate Forests

Temperate forests occur in mid-latitude regions with moderate precipitation and distinct seasons. Deciduous forests are dominated by trees that lose their leaves in winter, while temperate rainforests receive high precipitation and support evergreen conifers. These biomes have high productivity and support diverse understory plant and animal communities.

Temperate forests have a long history of human use for timber, fuel, and agriculture. Many temperate forests in North America and Europe are regrowing after historical clearing, demonstrating the capacity of these ecosystems for recovery. Sustainable forest management practices aim to balance timber production with habitat conservation, water quality protection, and carbon sequestration.

Boreal Forests

Boreal forests, also called taiga, occur in high-latitude regions of the Northern Hemisphere where winters are long and cold. These forests are dominated by coniferous trees such as spruce, fir, and pine that are adapted to cold temperatures and nutrient-poor soils. The boreal forest is the largest terrestrial biome on Earth, stretching across Canada, Scandinavia, and Russia.

Boreal forests store large amounts of carbon in their soils and peatlands, making them important for global climate regulation. Permafrost thaw and increased fire frequency associated with climate change threaten to release this stored carbon. AP Environmental Science students learn about the feedback loops between climate change and boreal forest dynamics.

Tundra

Tundra occurs in the Arctic and at high altitudes where temperatures are too low for tree growth. The vegetation consists of low-growing shrubs, grasses, mosses, and lichens adapted to short growing seasons and permafrost conditions. Tundra ecosystems support migratory caribou, musk oxen, arctic foxes, and numerous bird species.

Permafrost, ground that remains frozen for two or more consecutive years, is a defining feature of tundra. Climate warming is causing permafrost to thaw, which releases methane and carbon dioxide and alters surface hydrology. These changes affect also tundra ecosystems but also global climate through greenhouse gas emissions.

Aquatic Biomes in AP Environmental Science

Freshwater Biomes

Freshwater biomes include lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, and wetlands. These systems are characterized by low salt concentration and are influenced by the surrounding terrestrial landscape. Lakes are stratified by temperature and light, with distinct zones including the littoral, limnetic, and profundal zones. Rivers and streams flow from headwaters to mouth, with physical and biological characteristics changing along their course.

Wetlands are transitional ecosystems between terrestrial and aquatic environments, characterized by waterlogged soils and specialized vegetation. They provide critical ecosystem services including flood control, water purification, and habitat for migratory birds. Wetlands have been extensively drained for agriculture and development, making them one of the most threatened biome types.

Marine Biomes

Marine biomes cover approximately 70 percent of Earth's surface and include the open ocean, coastal zones, coral reefs, and estuaries. The ocean is stratified by light penetration, with photosynthesis occurring only in the photic zone. Deep ocean zones below the photic zone support specialized communities adapted to high pressure, cold temperatures, and darkness.

Coral reefs are among the most biodiverse marine ecosystems, supporting approximately 25 percent of marine species despite covering less than 1 percent of the ocean floor. Coral bleaching, caused by elevated water temperatures, threatens reef ecosystems worldwide. Estuaries, where freshwater meets saltwater, are highly productive nursery habitats for many commercially important fish species.

Aquatic Biome Classification

Aquatic biomes are classified by physical factors including salinity, depth, water flow, and temperature. Freshwater systems have salinity below 0.5 parts per thousand, while marine systems have salinity around 35 parts per thousand. Brackish water in estuaries falls between these extremes. Depth determines light availability and pressure, creating distinct vertical zones.

The AP Environmental Science curriculum treats aquatic biomes as connected systems instead of isolated units. Nutrient runoff from terrestrial biomes affects aquatic productivity and can cause eutrophication. Ocean currents transport heat and nutrients globally, linking marine biomes across vast distances. Understanding these connections is essential for managing water resources and marine ecosystems.

Biome Comparison Table

Biodiversity Patterns Across Biomes

Biodiversity is not distributed evenly across biomes. Tropical rainforests support the highest species richness of any terrestrial biome, while tundra and desert biomes support fewer species. This gradient reflects the influence of climate on productivity, habitat complexity, and evolutionary history. The relationship between host diversity and parasite diversity has been studied across biomes, with research showing that functional diversity patterns vary between biomes and taxonomic groups.

Research on flea and small mammal communities across Palearctic biomes found that functional beta diversity, which measures differences in ecological roles between communities, detected biome-level differences that functional alpha diversity, which measures diversity within a community, did not. This finding suggests that conservation planning should consider functional diversity in addition to species counts when comparing biomes.

Biodiversity intactness also varies across biomes. A place-based assessment of sub-Saharan Africa estimated that the region has lost an average of 24 percent of its pre-colonial and pre-industrial faunal and floral population abundances. Losses ranged from less than 20 percent for disturbance-adapted herbaceous plants to 80 percent for some large mammals. The worst-affected biomes were grasslands and fynbos, where land transformation into cropland drove losses, and forests, where non-agricultural degradation was the primary driver.

Human Impacts on Biomes

Land Use Change

Human land use is the primary driver of biome modification worldwide. Agriculture, urban development, logging, and infrastructure projects convert natural biomes into managed landscapes. The conversion of forests, savannas, wetlands, and grasslands for agriculture has accelerated over the past century, driven by growing human populations and changing consumption patterns.

Research on Brazil, a major agricultural producer, found that 37.2 percent of vegetation conversion was driven by local consumption within the same state, 34.8 percent by demand from other Brazilian states, and 28 percent by international trade. Non-forest conversion exceeded forest conversion, particularly for the domestic market and exports to China. The study linked 10.2 percent of conversion to dairy consumption and 7.7 percent to service sectors including hotels, restaurants, and cafes.

Climate Change

Climate change is shifting the boundaries of biomes worldwide. As temperatures warm, species are moving toward the poles and to higher elevations. Some biomes are expanding while others are contracting. Tundra and boreal forest biomes are particularly vulnerable because they are adapted to cold conditions that are rapidly disappearing.

The effects of climate change on biomes include altered fire regimes, changes in precipitation patterns, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and shifts in the timing of seasonal events. These changes affect ecosystem productivity, species interactions, and the services that biomes provide to human communities.

Fire Management

Fire is a natural ecological process in many biomes, including savannas, grasslands, and boreal forests. Indigenous fire management practices have shaped these ecosystems for thousands of years. A systematic review of Indigenous fire management in Brazil documented fire use in 95 Indigenous Territories, mainly in the Cerrado and Amazon biomes. Indigenous-managed fires enhance landscape heterogeneity, reduce fuel continuity, and lower the extent and severity of uncontrolled wildfires.

Policy approaches to fire management have shifted from restrictive zero-fire policies toward adaptive co-management models that recognize Indigenous fire stewardship. These approaches align ecological dynamics with traditional knowledge and governance systems, offering pathways for climate adaptation and ecosystem restoration.

Research Gaps in Biome Science

Scientific knowledge about biomes is unevenly distributed. Research on tropical terrestrial environments found that five ecoregions in moist broadleaf forests generate 22 percent of total citations but cover only 3 percent of tropical land area. Drier biomes with low tree cover account for 57 percent of tropical area but generate only 20 percent of citations. Locations that are drier, colder, with greater plant species richness, lower tree cover, and greater climate change exposure are under-sampled and under-cited.

These research gaps have practical consequences. Environmental policies based on unrepresentative data may be inappropriate for the biomes they target. The systematic map protocol for indirect drivers of biodiversity loss aims to address these gaps by identifying knowledge gaps and enhancing understanding of the underlying causes of biodiversity loss across biomes.

For students and researchers, these gaps represent opportunities. Field research in under-studied biomes can contribute to scientific understanding while building skills in data collection, analysis, and communication. Careers in environmental science increasingly value experience across multiple biomes and the ability to integrate local knowledge with scientific methods.

Careers That Study Biomes

Environmental Scientist

Environmental scientists study the natural environment and develop solutions to environmental problems. They collect and analyze data on air, water, soil, and biological resources, often working across multiple biomes. Environmental scientists may specialize in areas such as conservation biology, ecology, or environmental chemistry. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics provides information on the education, pay, and outlook for life, physical, and social science occupations, including environmental scientists.

Ecologist

Ecologists study the relationships between organisms and their environments, with many specializing in particular biomes or ecosystem types. They conduct field research, analyze ecological data, and develop models to understand ecosystem dynamics. Ecologists work for universities, government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and private companies. Their work informs conservation planning, natural resource management, and environmental policy.

Conservation Biologist

Conservation biologists focus on protecting biodiversity and preventing species extinction. They assess the status of species and ecosystems, develop conservation plans, and work with communities to implement protection measures. Conservation biologists often work in biodiversity hotspots such as tropical rainforests and coral reefs, but they also address conservation challenges in temperate and boreal biomes.

Wildlife Biologist

Wildlife biologists study animal populations and their habitats, often focusing on particular species or biomes. They conduct population surveys, track animal movements, and assess the impacts of human activities on wildlife. Wildlife biologists work for government agencies, conservation organizations, and research institutions. Their work informs hunting regulations, endangered species protection, and habitat management.

Climate Scientist

Climate scientists study Earth's climate system and how it is changing over time. They use climate models, satellite data, and field observations to understand the interactions between the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and biomes. Climate scientists contribute to assessments of climate change impacts on biomes and help develop adaptation strategies for vulnerable ecosystems and communities.

Environmental Policy Analyst

Environmental policy analysts evaluate the effectiveness of environmental laws and regulations and develop recommendations for policy improvements. They analyze scientific data, economic impacts, and stakeholder perspectives to inform decision-making. Policy analysts working on biome-related issues may focus on land use planning, protected area management, or climate change adaptation.

Geographic Information Systems Specialist

GIS specialists use mapping technology to analyze spatial patterns in environmental data. They create maps of biome distributions, track land use change over time, and model the potential impacts of development projects. GIS skills are valuable across environmental careers because they enable professionals to visualize and analyze complex spatial relationships.

Research Scientist

Research scientists in universities, government laboratories, and private research institutions conduct studies on biome ecology, biodiversity, and ecosystem function. They design experiments, collect and analyze data, and publish their findings in scientific journals. Research careers typically require advanced degrees and offer opportunities to contribute to fundamental scientific understanding.

Education and Training Pathways

Entry-level positions in environmental science typically require a bachelor's degree in environmental science, biology, ecology, or a related field. Coursework in ecology, chemistry, geology, statistics, and geographic information systems provides a foundation for biome-related careers. Laboratory and field experience, gained through internships, research assistantships, or volunteer work, is important for developing practical skills.

Advanced positions in research and academia typically require a master's degree or doctorate. Graduate programs offer specialized training in areas such as conservation biology, ecosystem ecology, or climate science. The National Institutes of Health Office of Intramural Training and Education provides information about research training opportunities for students at various stages of their education.

Professional certifications and continuing education can enhance career prospects. Many environmental professionals pursue certifications in areas such as wetland delineation, environmental impact assessment, or wildlife management. These credentials demonstrate specialized knowledge and can lead to advancement opportunities.

Practical Skills for Biome Studies

Field Sampling Methods

Field sampling is essential for understanding biome characteristics and monitoring changes over time. Common methods include vegetation surveys using quadrats or transects, wildlife surveys using camera traps or point counts, and soil sampling for nutrient analysis. Students and professionals should learn proper sampling design, data recording, and sample handling procedures.

Remote Sensing and GIS

Remote sensing uses satellite or aerial imagery to observe biome characteristics over large areas. GIS software allows researchers to analyze spatial patterns and create maps. These tools are increasingly important for monitoring land use change, tracking deforestation, and assessing the impacts of climate change on biome boundaries.

Data Analysis and Statistics

Environmental data analysis requires statistical skills for testing hypotheses and interpreting patterns. Students should learn to use statistical software, design experiments, and communicate results effectively. Understanding uncertainty and limitations in data is essential for making sound scientific conclusions.

Scientific Communication

Environmental professionals must communicate their findings to diverse audiences, including policymakers, landowners, and the general public. Written reports, presentations, and visualizations are common formats for sharing scientific information. Clear communication is essential for translating scientific knowledge into effective environmental management.

Common Failure Patterns in Biome Studies

Overgeneralization from Limited Data

A common error in biome studies is drawing broad conclusions from limited sampling. Research gaps in tropical biomes demonstrate that some regions are heavily studied while others receive little attention. Conclusions based on unrepresentative data may not apply across the full range of conditions within a biome.

Ignoring Disturbance History

Biomes are dynamic systems shaped by natural and human disturbances. Studies that ignore disturbance history may misinterpret current conditions as stable states instead of responses to recent events. Fire history, logging history, and land use history are important context for understanding biome structure and function.

Confusing Correlation with Causation

Environmental data often show correlations between variables, but correlation does not establish causation. For example, the association between dietary patterns and health outcomes may be confounded by other factors. Researchers must use appropriate study designs and statistical methods to establish causal relationships.

Neglecting Scale Effects

Ecological patterns vary with spatial and temporal scale. Processes that operate at local scales may not be visible at regional or global scales, and vice versa. Researchers must carefully consider the appropriate scale for their research questions and interpret their results accordingly.

Failing to Account for Uncertainty

Environmental measurements always involve uncertainty from sampling error, measurement error, and natural variability. Studies that fail to quantify and report uncertainty may overstate the confidence of their conclusions. Transparent reporting of uncertainty is essential for scientific integrity.

Safety and Ethical Considerations

Field Safety

Field research in biomes can involve physical hazards including extreme temperatures, difficult terrain, venomous animals, and remote locations. Researchers should conduct risk assessments, carry appropriate safety equipment, and follow established protocols for field work. Working in pairs or groups is recommended for remote locations.

Ethical Treatment of Organisms

Research involving animals must follow ethical guidelines for humane treatment. Researchers should minimize disturbance to study organisms and their habitats, obtain necessary permits, and follow institutional animal care protocols. Collection of specimens should be justified by research objectives and conducted sustainably.

Cultural Respect

Research in biomes often involves working in areas with Indigenous or local communities. Researchers should respect local knowledge, obtain informed consent, and share research benefits with communities. Collaborative approaches that integrate scientific and traditional knowledge can improve research quality and community relations.

Data Management

Environmental data should be collected, stored, and shared according to established standards. Researchers should document their methods, preserve raw data, and make data available for verification and reuse. Proper data management supports scientific integrity and maximizes the value of research investments.

Professional Escalation Criteria

Environmental professionals should escalate concerns when they encounter situations that exceed their expertise or authority. Indicators that escalation is appropriate include:

• Observations of illegal activities such as poaching, illegal logging, or unauthorized development
• Evidence of imminent threats to public health or safety
• Discovery of endangered species or critical habitat at risk
• Data that contradict established scientific understanding
• Requests to make decisions beyond one's professional qualifications
• Conflicts between project requirements and legal or ethical obligations

When escalating, professionals should document their observations, notify appropriate authorities, and follow institutional reporting procedures. Timely escalation can prevent environmental damage and protect both natural resources and professional integrity.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between a biome and an ecosystem?

A biome is a large-scale ecological community defined by climate and dominant vegetation, extending over broad geographic areas. An ecosystem is a smaller-scale unit that includes all organisms and their physical environment in a particular area. A single biome contains many ecosystems, and ecosystems within the same biome share similar climate and vegetation characteristics.

How many biomes are recognized in AP Environmental Science?

AP Environmental Science typically recognizes nine terrestrial biomes and several aquatic biomes. Terrestrial biomes include tropical rainforest, tropical dry forest, tropical savanna, desert, temperate grassland, temperate shrubland, temperate forest, boreal forest, and tundra. Aquatic biomes include freshwater systems such as lakes and rivers, and marine systems such as oceans, coral reefs, and estuaries.

Why are tropical rainforests so biodiverse?

Tropical rainforests support high biodiversity because of their warm temperatures, abundant precipitation, and year-round growing season. These conditions support high primary productivity, which provides energy for many species. The complex vertical structure of rainforests creates diverse habitats, and the long evolutionary history of tropical regions has allowed many species to diversify.

How does climate change affect biome distribution?

Climate change shifts the temperature and precipitation patterns that determine biome boundaries. As temperatures warm, biomes are moving toward the poles and to higher elevations. Some biomes are expanding while others are contracting. Species that cannot migrate or adapt quickly enough may face population declines or extinction.

What is desertification and how does it affect biomes?

Desertification is the process by which productive land becomes desert-like due to climate change, overgrazing, deforestation, or unsustainable agriculture. It can convert grasslands and dry forests into desert conditions, reducing biodiversity and ecosystem services. Desertification threatens food security and livelihoods in many regions.

What careers are available for people who study biomes?

Careers that involve studying biomes include environmental scientist, ecologist, conservation biologist, wildlife biologist, climate scientist, environmental policy analyst, and GIS specialist. These professionals work for government agencies, universities, nonprofit organizations, and private companies. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics provides information about life, physical, and social science occupations.

How can students prepare for careers in environmental science?

Students can prepare by taking coursework in biology, chemistry, mathematics, and statistics, and by gaining field and laboratory experience through internships or research positions. Developing skills in GIS, data analysis, and scientific communication is valuable. Advanced degrees are often required for research and leadership positions.

What are the most threatened biomes globally?

Temperate grasslands and wetlands are among the most threatened biomes because they have been extensively converted to agriculture and development. Tropical rainforests face rapid deforestation, and coral reefs are threatened by ocean warming and acidification. Conservation priorities often focus on these vulnerable biomes because of their high biodiversity and the ecosystem services they provide.

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References and Further Reading

• Life, Physical, and Social Science Occupations. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
• Healthcare Occupations. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
• O*NET OnLine. U.S. Department of Labor.
• Office of Intramural Training and Education. National Institutes of Health.
• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
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• Microbiome and metabolome features of the cardiometabolic disease spectrum.. Nature medicine, 2022.
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• Dendritic cell-derived hepcidin sequesters iron from the microbiota to promote mucosal healing.. Science (New York, N.Y.), 2020.
• A gut microbiome-kidney-heart axis predictive of future cardiovascular diseases.. Nature communications, 2026.
• Liquefied Petroleum Gas or Biomass Cooking and Severe Infant Pneumonia.. The New England journal of medicine, 2024.
• Effects of Cooking with Liquefied Petroleum Gas or Biomass on Stunting in Infants.. The New England journal of medicine, 2024.
• Dietary Acculturation Is Associated With Altered Gut Microbiome, Circulating Metabolites, and Cardiovascular Disease Risk in US Hispanics and Latinos: Results From HCHS/SOL.. Circulation, 2024.
• Gaps in tropical science from unrepresentative distribution of sampling and citation across natural terrestrial environments.. 2025.
• Bridging knowledges through fire: a systematic review of indigenous fire management practices in Brazil.. 2026.
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• What is the evidence on indirect drivers of biodiversity loss worldwide? A systematic map protocol.. 2026.
• A place-based assessment of biodiversity intactness in sub-Saharan Africa.. 2026.
• Acknowledgment to Reviewers of Advances in Environmental and Engineering Research in 2024. Advances in Environmental and Engineering Research, 2025.
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• Global, regional, and national comparative risk assessment of 79 behavioural, environmental and occupational, and metabolic risks or clusters of risks in 188 countries, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. The Lancet, 2015.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.