Wild Ducks of the World: Diversity, Habitats, and Identification

Wild ducks belong to the family Anatidae, which also includes geese and swans. This article surveys the major groups of wild ducks, namely dabbling ducks, diving ducks, and sea ducks, and highlights notable species from different continents. The American black duck and Eurasian teal receive particular attention because they are frequently confused with other species and because their identification requires careful observation of plumage, behavior, and habitat. The practical outcome of this article is a field guide style overview that helps students, researchers, life science professionals, and informed general readers recognize the key identification features and habitat preferences of each duck group. The content draws on peer reviewed literature about waterfowl biology, disease surveillance, and habitat ecology. It does not replace a regional field guide or local ornithological authority.

Scope and Reader Context

This article covers the three functional groups of wild ducks that observers encounter across North America, Europe, Asia, and other continents. Dabbling ducks feed at the water surface or tip forward to reach submerged vegetation. Diving ducks plunge below the surface to capture aquatic prey. Sea ducks spend most of the year in marine environments and have specialized adaptations for saltwater life. Within each group, the article describes representative species, their diagnostic field marks, and the habitats where they are most likely to be found. The American black duck and Eurasian teal are treated in dedicated sections because they are common subjects of identification questions and because they illustrate broader patterns of hybridization, migration, and wetland dependence.

Readers who manage wetlands, study waterfowl, or participate in bird surveys will find the habitat descriptions and identification criteria directly applicable to field work. The article also includes a section on disease surveillance because wild ducks are monitored for avian influenza and other pathogens that affect poultry and human health. Understanding the species composition of local duck populations helps farmers, wildlife agencies, and public health authorities interpret surveillance results and assess risks to domestic birds.

At a Glance

The table below summarizes the three major groups of wild ducks, their feeding strategies, representative species, and the habitats where they are most commonly observed. Use this table as a quick reference before reading the detailed sections.

Dabbling Ducks

Dabbling ducks are the most familiar group of wild ducks. They are adapted to shallow water where they can reach food by tipping forward with their tails pointed upward. Their diets include aquatic plants, seeds, invertebrates, and small fish. Dabbling ducks take off nearly vertically from the water surface, which allows them to use small ponds and temporary wetlands that diving ducks cannot use.

American Black Duck

The American black duck (Anas rubripes) is a large dabbling duck native to eastern North America. It breeds in the northeastern United States and eastern Canada and winters along the Atlantic coast and inland wetlands. The species is notable for its dark plumage, which distinguishes it from the brighter male mallard. The American black duck has a body that appears dark brown to black at a distance, with a lighter brown head and a yellow or olive bill. The speculum, the iridescent wing patch, is purple with a black border and is visible in flight.

Identification of the American black duck is complicated by hybridization with the mallard. Mallards and American black ducks interbreed where their ranges overlap, and hybrid offspring show intermediate plumage characteristics. A study of wing plumage in American black ducks, mallards, and their hybrids documented that wing feather characteristics can be used to distinguish the species and their crosses, although individual variation requires careful examination of multiple feather tracts. Field observers should note the color of the head, the presence or absence of a white neck ring, the bill color, and the pattern of the speculum when separating American black ducks from mallards and hybrids.

The American black duck population has declined historically, and researchers have investigated the factors affecting these declines. A modeling study of American black duck populations identified multiple potential causes, including habitat loss, hunting pressure, and competition with mallards. The same study emphasized that population dynamics vary by region and that management actions must be tailored to local conditions. Bioenergetics research on American black ducks has measured resting metabolic rate and the energy costs of different behaviors, providing data that managers use to estimate the carrying capacity of wintering and migration landscapes. These measurements are relevant to wetland management because they link habitat quality to the energy balance of individual birds.

Eurasian Teal

The Eurasian teal (Anas crecca) is a small dabbling duck with a broad distribution across Europe, Asia, and northern Africa. It is one of the smallest ducks in the world, with a body length of about 34 to 38 centimeters. The male in breeding plumage has a chestnut head with a broad green eye patch bordered by a cream line, a gray body, and a yellow undertail patch. The female is mottled brown with a dark eye line and a green speculum. In flight, both sexes show a bright green speculum with a white border.

The Eurasian teal is a highly migratory species. Birds breeding in northern Europe and Asia move south and west to winter in the Mediterranean basin, the British Isles, and southern Asia. They prefer shallow freshwater wetlands with dense vegetation, where they feed on seeds, aquatic invertebrates, and plant material. The Eurasian teal is often found in mixed flocks with other dabbling ducks, and its small size and rapid flight make it challenging to observe in detail.

The Eurasian teal is sometimes confused with the green-winged teal (Anas carolinensis), which was formerly treated as a subspecies of the Eurasian teal. The two forms are now considered separate species by many authorities. The male green-winged teal has a vertical white stripe on the side of the breast, while the male Eurasian teal has a horizontal white stripe above the wing. Observers in North America should check for these differences when identifying teal in the field.

Other Notable Dabbling Ducks

The mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) is the most widespread dabbling duck in the Northern Hemisphere. The male has a green head, white neck ring, chestnut breast, and gray body. The female is mottled brown with an orange and black bill. Mallards are highly adaptable and occur in urban ponds, agricultural wetlands, and natural marshes. They are the ancestor of most domestic duck breeds, including the Pekin duck, which is one of the major domestic species in poultry production.

The northern pintail (Anas acuta) is a slender dabbling duck with a long neck and a pointed tail. The male has a chocolate brown head, white breast, and gray body with a white stripe extending up the side of the neck. The female is mottled brown with a pointed tail. Northern pintails breed across the northern continents and winter in large flocks on coastal lagoons and inland wetlands.

The gadwall (Mareca strepera) is a medium sized dabbling duck with a gray brown body and a black rear end. The male has a subtle pattern of fine gray vermiculations and a white speculum that is visible in flight. The female resembles a female mallard but has a thinner bill and a white speculum. Gadwalls are often overlooked because of their subdued plumage, but they are common in prairie wetlands and coastal marshes.

Diving Ducks

Diving ducks are adapted to feed below the water surface. They have larger feet set farther back on the body than dabbling ducks, which makes them powerful swimmers but awkward on land. Diving ducks take off by running across the water surface, and they require larger bodies of water for landing and takeoff than dabbling ducks.

Lesser Scaup

The lesser scaup (Aythya affinis) is a medium sized diving duck that breeds in the boreal forests of North America and winters on lakes, reservoirs, and coastal bays. The male has a black head with a purple or green sheen, a black breast, a white body with fine gray vermiculations, and a blue bill. The female is brown with a white patch at the base of the bill. The lesser scaup is very similar to the greater scaup (Aythya marila), and the two species are difficult to separate in the field. The lesser scaup has a slightly smaller head with a peak at the rear, while the greater scaup has a rounder head and a wider bill.

Lesser scaup populations have declined historically, and researchers have investigated the role of energy expenditure and food availability in these declines. Bioenergetics research on lesser scaup has measured resting metabolic rate and the energy costs of different behaviors, providing data that managers use to estimate the carrying capacity of migration and wintering landscapes. These measurements are relevant to wetland management because they link habitat quality to the energy balance of individual birds.

Ring-Necked Duck

The ring-necked duck (Aythya collaris) is a small diving duck that breeds in the northern United States and Canada and winters in the southern United States, Mexico, and the Caribbean. The male has a black head, breast, and back, a gray body with a white flank patch, and a white ring on the bill. The female is brown with a white eye ring and a white ring on the bill. The ring-necked duck prefers shallow freshwater wetlands with abundant aquatic vegetation, where it feeds on seeds, tubers, and invertebrates.

Canvasback and Redhead

The canvasback (Aythya valisineria) is a large diving duck with a long, sloping profile. The male has a chestnut red head, a black breast, and a white body with fine gray vermiculations. The female is brown with a lighter head and neck. Canvasbacks feed on the tubers of wild celery and other aquatic plants, and they require deep water with abundant submerged vegetation.

The redhead (Aythya americana) is a medium sized diving duck with a rounded head. The male has a chestnut red head, a black breast, and a gray body. The female is brown with a lighter throat and a gray bill. Redheads breed in prairie wetlands and winter in coastal bays and large lakes. They are known for laying eggs in the nests of other ducks, a behavior called brood parasitism.

Sea Ducks

Sea ducks are a group of diving ducks that spend most of the year in marine environments. They have dense plumage, thick bills, and specialized glands that excrete excess salt. Sea ducks are often found in large flocks on coastal waters, where they feed on mollusks, crustaceans, and other marine invertebrates.

Common Eider

The common eider (Somateria mollissima) is the largest duck in the Northern Hemisphere. The male has a black and white body with a green nape and a pale blue crown. The female is barred brown with a distinctive wedge shaped head profile. Common eiders breed in Arctic and subarctic regions and winter in coastal waters of the North Atlantic and North Pacific. They feed on mussels and other shellfish, which they swallow whole and crush in their muscular gizzards.

Surf Scoter

The surf scoter (Melanitta perspicillata) is a stocky sea duck with a black body and a boldly patterned head. The male has a black body, a white patch on the nape, and a large orange, white, and black bill. The female is brown with two pale patches on the face. Surf scoters breed in boreal forests and winter along both coasts of North America. They feed on mollusks, crustaceans, and small fish in shallow coastal waters.

Long-Tailed Duck

The long-tailed duck (Clangula hyemalis) is a small sea duck with a distinctive long, pointed tail. The male in winter plumage is white with dark brown patches on the head, breast, and wings. The female is brown and white with a shorter tail. Long-tailed ducks breed in the Arctic and winter in coastal waters of the North Atlantic and North Pacific. They are deep divers and have been recorded at depths of more than 50 meters.

Habitat Preferences and Wetland Ecology

Wild ducks depend on wetlands for breeding, feeding, and resting. The quality and availability of wetland habitat directly affect duck populations, and habitat loss is a major threat to many species. Wetlands provide food, cover from predators, and nesting sites for ducks, and they also support the invertebrates and plants that ducks eat.

Freshwater Wetlands

Freshwater wetlands include marshes, swamps, ponds, lakes, and flooded fields. Dabbling ducks prefer shallow wetlands with emergent vegetation, where they can feed on seeds and invertebrates. Diving ducks use deeper wetlands with open water, where they can pursue prey below the surface. The availability of freshwater wetlands during migration is critical for ducks that travel long distances between breeding and wintering areas.

A modeling study of spring migratory waterbirds in the Iowa portion of the Prairie Pothole Region of North America examined the potential of constructed water quality wetlands to provide stopover habitat for waterbirds. The study found that unmitigated drainage modernization is likely to have a large negative effect on spring migratory resources for dabbling ducks and shorebirds and a minimal effect on diving ducks. Water quality wetland installations are likely to provide habitat for dabbling and diving ducks, but wetland installation is unlikely to completely offset habitat losses for dabbling ducks and shorebirds. The study concluded that water quality wetlands can address several environmental issues associated with agricultural expansion and intensification by improving water quality and providing wetland resources for waterbirds and other organisms.

Coastal and Marine Habitats

Sea ducks use coastal waters, estuaries, and offshore marine habitats. These environments provide abundant shellfish and other invertebrates, but they also expose ducks to salt, waves, and cold temperatures. Sea ducks have physiological adaptations for saltwater life, including salt glands that excrete excess sodium chloride. Coastal development, oil spills, and disturbance from boats can degrade sea duck habitats and reduce their carrying capacity.

Wetland Degradation and Ecosystem Services

Freshwater mussels are an important component of wetland ecosystems, and their declines can affect the food web that supports ducks and other waterbirds. A study of freshwater mussel populations in the River Thames in the United Kingdom found large declines in population density for all unionid species between 1964 and 2020. The duck mussel (Anodonta anatina) decreased to 1.1 percent of its 1964 density, and the painter's mussel (Unio pictorum) fell to 3.2 percent of its 1964 density. The study also found strong decreases in size at age for all species, which now grow to 65 to 90 percent of their maximum lengths in 1964. As a result of reduced density and size, estimated annual biomass production fell to 7.5 percent of 1964 levels. Since mussels can be important to ecosystem functioning, providing key regulating and provisioning services, the declines imply substantial degradation of freshwater ecosystem services in the River Thames.

Identification Workflow

Identifying wild ducks in the field requires a systematic approach. The following workflow helps observers collect the information needed to make a reliable identification.

Step 1: Observe the Body Shape and Size

Start by noting the overall size and shape of the duck. Dabbling ducks have a horizontal posture on the water with their tails held above the surface. Diving ducks sit lower in the water and have a more rounded profile. Sea ducks are often bulky with thick necks and large bills. Compare the duck to a familiar species, such as a mallard, to estimate its size.

Step 2: Note the Feeding Behavior

Watch how the duck feeds. Dabbling ducks tip forward to reach food below the surface, while diving ducks submerge completely. Sea ducks dive in deeper water and may remain submerged for extended periods. Feeding behavior is one of the most reliable clues for assigning a duck to a group.

Step 3: Examine the Plumage Patterns

Use binoculars or a spotting scope to examine the head, breast, wings, and tail. Note the color of the head, the presence of eye patches or stripes, the color of the breast and belly, and the pattern of the speculum. The speculum is often the most diagnostic feature for separating similar species. Record the color of the bill and legs, as these can be useful for identification.

Step 4: Consider the Habitat and Location

The habitat where you observe a duck provides important context. Dabbling ducks are more likely to be found in shallow wetlands, while diving ducks use deeper water. Sea ducks are usually found in coastal or marine environments. The geographic location also narrows the possibilities, because many duck species have restricted ranges.

Step 5: Record the Details

Take notes and photographs if possible. Record the date, time, location, weather conditions, and the behavior of the duck. These records are valuable for confirming identifications and for contributing to citizen science databases. If you are uncertain about an identification, consult a regional field guide or contact a local ornithological authority.

Records and Measurements

Keeping accurate records of duck observations is essential for research, management, and conservation. The following types of records are commonly collected by waterfowl biologists and informed observers.

Species Composition Surveys

Species composition surveys document the number of individuals of each duck species at a particular site and time. These surveys provide baseline data for monitoring population trends and for assessing the effects of habitat management. Surveys should be conducted at consistent times of year and use standardized methods to allow comparisons across years.

Banding and Marking Records

Banding programs use metal or plastic bands to mark individual ducks. Recaptures and resightings of banded birds provide data on survival, movement, and migration routes. Banding records are maintained by national bird banding laboratories, and observers who find banded birds should report the band number to the appropriate authority.

Disease Surveillance Records

Wild ducks are monitored for avian influenza and other pathogens that can affect poultry and human health. The European Food Safety Authority has published annual reports on surveillance for avian influenza in poultry and wild birds in member states of the European Union. The 2018 report documented that 9,145 dead or moribund wild birds were sampled, with 163 birds testing positive for highly pathogenic avian influenza virus H5N6. The infected birds were reported by eight member states and were mostly found between January and April 2018. The report described the wild bird species affected with highly pathogenic avian influenza and assessed the strategy of targeted sampling.

Parasite and Pathogen Records

Wild ducks host a variety of parasites and pathogens that are of interest to researchers and public health authorities. A study of avian paramyxoviruses in wild birds of Kazakhstan collected 6,913 samples from 183 bird species during 2002 to 2013 and identified 45 isolates belonging to four different serotypes. All avian paramyxoviruses were isolated predominantly from birds belonging to the family Anatidae, which includes ducks and geese. A review of coronaviruses in wild birds identified opportunities for future research on migratory waterfowl, noting that the role of wild birds in the ecology of coronaviruses is not fully understood.

Disease and Health Considerations

Wild ducks are hosts to a range of infectious agents, some of which have implications for domestic poultry and human health. Understanding the disease ecology of wild ducks is important for farmers, wildlife managers, and public health authorities.

Avian Influenza

Avian influenza is a viral infectious disease that affects all species of domestic and wild birds. The viruses causing this disease can be of high or low pathogenicity and represent a continuous threat to poultry in Europe. Council Directive 2005/94/EC requests European Union member states to carry out surveillance in poultry and wild birds and notify the results to the responsible authority. The European Food Safety Authority received a mandate from the European Commission to collate, validate, analyze, and summarize in an annual report the data resulting from the avian influenza surveillance programs.

Wild ducks are important hosts for avian influenza viruses, and they can carry the viruses over long distances during migration. Farmers should monitor local wild bird populations for signs of disease and report unusual mortality events to the appropriate veterinary authority. Poultry producers should take measures to prevent contact between domestic birds and wild waterfowl, such as securing feed and water sources and limiting access to ponds and wetlands.

Chlamydiosis

Avian chlamydiosis is caused by bacteria of the genus Chlamydophila. A review of the avian host range of Chlamydophila species found that more than 20 percent of all species per order are positive for chlamydia in the orders Lariformes (gulls), Alciformes (auks), Sphenisciformes (penguins), and Anseriformes (ducks and geese). The review noted that the different percentages of chlamydia positive bird species reflect a high rate of investigations of domestic birds, frequent zoonotic implications, and an assumed high susceptibility to infection and subsequent seroconversion in waterfowl.

Microsporidiosis

Microsporidia are single celled parasites that can infect humans and animals. A study of animal reservoirs of human virulent microsporidian species in Poland examined 1,340 fecal samples collected from 178 species of animals. Microsporidian spores were detected in 33 fecal samples obtained from 17 animal species. The prevalence of microsporidian infections in waterfowl was significantly higher than the prevalence in other animals. Three species of human virulent microsporidia were identified in animals, including Encephalitozoon hellem, which was found in 25 fecal samples taken from 12 bird species.

Helminth Parasites

Wild ducks host a diverse community of helminth parasites, including trematodes, cestodes, nematodes, and acanthocephalans. A study of helminth parasites of waterfowl in Mexico identified 25 taxa from the gastrointestinal tract of 59 wild birds belonging to the family Anatidae. A literature search yielded 563 records corresponding to 95 parasite taxa. The study noted that trematodes represent the most diverse parasite group in anatids in Mexico and that information about helminths parasitizing waterfowl is useful for understanding the effect of habitat loss and pollution of wetlands where migratory birds spend the breeding season.

Zoonotic Schistosomes

Avian schistosomes are trematode parasites that can cause cercarial dermatitis in humans, a condition also known as swimmer's itch. A study of three species of zoonotic schistosomes in the genus Trichobilharzia found significant differences in population genetic parameters across one nuclear and two mitochondrial loci. Trichobilharzia querquedulae maintained a well connected, globally diverse metapopulation, with an effective population size approximately three times larger than that of the other two species. The study highlighted the value of natural history collections for understanding host parasite natural history and its influence on microevolutionary patterns, including contributions to zoonotic disease.

Common Failure Patterns in Duck Identification

Even experienced observers make identification errors. The following failure patterns are common and can be avoided with careful observation.

Confusing Female Dabbling Ducks

Female dabbling ducks are often difficult to identify because they lack the bright plumage of the males. Female mallards, American black ducks, and gadwalls can look similar, especially at a distance. Check the bill color, the presence of an eye line, and the pattern of the speculum to separate these species.

Overlooking Hybrids

Hybridization between mallards and American black ducks produces birds with intermediate plumage that do not match either parent species. Hybrids can be identified by careful examination of the head color, the presence of a white neck ring, and the pattern of the speculum. However, some hybrids are indistinguishable from one of the parent species, and genetic analysis may be required for confirmation.

Misidentifying Teal Species

The Eurasian teal and the green-winged teal are very similar in appearance and were formerly treated as a single species. The male Eurasian teal has a horizontal white stripe above the wing, while the male green-winged teal has a vertical white stripe on the side of the breast. Observers should check for these differences when identifying teal in the field.

Assuming Habitat Determines Species

While habitat is a useful clue for identification, it is not definitive. Dabbling ducks can be found on deep water, and diving ducks can be found on shallow wetlands. Sea ducks occasionally appear on freshwater lakes, especially during storms or migration. Always confirm an identification with plumage and behavior, not habitat alone.

Limitations and Professional Escalation

This article provides an overview of wild duck diversity, habitats, and identification, but it has limitations. The species descriptions are abbreviated and do not cover all plumage variations, age classes, or geographic forms. Regional field guides and ornithological references should be consulted for detailed identification criteria. The disease information is drawn from specific studies and surveillance reports and does not represent a comprehensive review of waterfowl diseases.

If you observe unusual mortality in wild ducks, contact your local wildlife agency or veterinary authority. If you find a banded duck, report the band number to the national bird banding laboratory. If you are uncertain about an identification, consult a regional field guide or contact a local ornithological authority. If you are a poultry producer and wild ducks are present on your farm, take measures to prevent contact between domestic and wild birds and monitor your flock for signs of disease.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between dabbling ducks and diving ducks?

Dabbling ducks feed at the water surface or tip forward to reach submerged vegetation in shallow water. Diving ducks plunge below the surface to feed on aquatic animals and plants in deeper water. Dabbling ducks take off nearly vertically from the water surface, while diving ducks run across the water to gain speed for takeoff.

How can I tell an American black duck from a mallard?

The American black duck has a dark brown to black body with a lighter brown head and a yellow or olive bill. The male mallard has a green head, white neck ring, chestnut breast, and gray body. The female mallard is mottled brown with an orange and black bill. Hybrids between the two species show intermediate plumage characteristics and can be difficult to identify.

What is the Eurasian teal and where is it found?

The Eurasian teal is a small dabbling duck with a broad distribution across Europe, Asia, and northern Africa. The male in breeding plumage has a chestnut head with a broad green eye patch bordered by a cream line. The Eurasian teal prefers shallow freshwater wetlands with dense vegetation and is highly migratory.

Why are wild ducks monitored for avian influenza?

Wild ducks are important hosts for avian influenza viruses and can carry the viruses over long distances during migration. Avian influenza is a viral infectious disease that affects all species of domestic and wild birds and represents a continuous threat to poultry. Surveillance programs in wild birds help authorities detect the introduction of avian influenza viruses and assess the risk to domestic poultry.

What should I do if I find a sick or dead wild duck?

If you find a sick or dead wild duck, do not handle the bird with bare hands. Contact your local wildlife agency or veterinary authority and report the location and condition of the bird. Unusual mortality events in wild birds should be reported promptly because they may indicate the presence of a notifiable disease.

Can wild ducks transmit diseases to domestic poultry?

Wild ducks can transmit diseases to domestic poultry, including avian influenza and avian paramyxoviruses. Poultry producers should take measures to prevent contact between domestic birds and wild waterfowl, such as securing feed and water sources and limiting access to ponds and wetlands. Monitoring local wild bird populations for signs of disease can help producers assess the risk to their flocks.

What is the best way to identify ducks in the field?

Use a systematic approach that considers body shape and size, feeding behavior, plumage patterns, habitat, and location. Start by noting the overall size and shape of the duck, then watch how it feeds. Use binoculars or a spotting scope to examine the head, breast, wings, and tail. Record the details in a notebook and consult a regional field guide if you are uncertain about an identification.

Why are wetlands important for wild ducks?

Wetlands provide food, cover from predators, and nesting sites for ducks, and they also support the invertebrates and plants that ducks eat. The quality and availability of wetland habitat directly affect duck populations, and habitat loss is a major threat to many species. Constructed water quality wetlands can provide stopover habitat for migratory waterbirds, but they are unlikely to completely offset habitat losses from agricultural drainage modernization.

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References and Further Reading

• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
• Annual Report on surveillance for avian influenza in poultry and wild birds in Member States of the European Union in 2018.. EFSA journal. European Food Safety Authority, 2019.
• Avian host range of Chlamydophila spp. based on isolation, antigen detection and serology.. Avian pathology : journal of the W.V.P.A, 2003.
• Declines in freshwater mussel density, size and productivity in the River Thames over the past half century.. The Journal of animal ecology, 2023.
• Circulation of avian paramyxoviruses in wild birds of Kazakhstan in 2002-2013.. Virology journal, 2016.
• [Animal reservoirs of human virulent microsporidian species].. Wiadomosci parazytologiczne, 2009.
• New records of helminth parasites of nine species of waterfowl in Mexico, and a checklist of the helminth fauna of Anatidae occurring in Mexican wetlands.. Journal of helminthology, 2020.
• Caribou in the cross-fire? Considering terrestrial lichen forage in the face of mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) expansion.. PloS one, 2020.
• Modeling Wetland Resources for Spring Migratory Waterbirds Under Different Agricultural Management Scenarios in the Iowa Portion of the Prairie Pothole Region, USA.. 2025.
• Legacy parasite collections reveal species-specific population genetic patterns among three species of zoonotic schistosomes.. 2025.
• Identification and synthetic modeling of factors affecting American black duck populations. 2002.
• Description and identification of American black duck, mallard, and hybrid wing plumage. 2000.
• Estimating behavioral multipliers to American black duck and lesser scaup resting metabolic rate to better estimate daily energy expenditure.. Journal of Comparative Physiology. B, Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Physiology, 2026.
• A Review of Coronaviruses in Wild Birds and Opportunities for Future Research on Migratory Waterfowl. Birds, 2025.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.