The Secret Lives of Urban Birds: Adaptations to City Life

Urban environments impose novel pressures on birds, and the observable shifts in song frequency, timing, activity, and fear responses represent measurable biological adjustments instead of random variation. This article examines the documented adaptations of urban bird populations, the ecological implications of those changes, and the practical methods researchers and land managers use to assess them. The evidence base draws on peer-reviewed studies of songbirds across Europe, North America, Asia, and the tropics, with attention to what remains unknown about fitness consequences.

At a Glance: Documented Urban Bird Adaptations

The Acoustic Environment as a Selection Pressure

Urban noise is dominated by low frequencies, primarily from traffic and mechanical sources. This creates a specific problem for birds that use vocal signals for territory defense and mate attraction. Low-frequency noise masks the lower components of bird song, reducing the distance over which a signal remains detectable. The acoustic adaptation hypothesis proposes that birds in cities shift their songs to higher frequencies to escape this masking.

Evidence for this hypothesis comes from multiple species and regions. A 2006 study of great tits across Europe found consistently higher minimum frequencies in ten out of ten city-forest comparisons from London to Prague and from Amsterdam to Paris. Urban songs were also shorter and sung faster than forest songs. The authors described this as the most consistent evidence supporting the acoustic adaptation hypothesis since it was postulated in the early 1970s (Cities change the songs of birds).

The pattern extends beyond Europe. A 2018 study of nine tropical bird species in Brazil found that eight species sang higher dominant frequencies in forest fragments near urban areas compared to fragments distant from urban areas. The response did not vary between oscines, suboscines, and non-passerines, suggesting the adjustment is widespread across bird lineages (Dominant frequency of songs in tropical bird species).

However, the interpretation of these frequency shifts remains debated. A 2010 modeling study of great tits and blackbirds calculated communication distances under different noise levels and found that increased vocal pitch increased communication distance only marginally. In contrast, vocal amplitude adjustments had a strong and significantly larger effect. The authors suggested that increased song pitch might be a physiological side effect of singing at high amplitudes or an epiphenomenon of urbanization unrelated to signal transmission (Birds and anthropogenic noise: are urban songs adaptive?).

A 2013 phonetogram study of the common blackbird provided a partial resolution to this debate. The researchers found that frequency and amplitude are strongly positively correlated in this species. City blackbirds preferentially sang higher-frequency elements that can be produced at higher intensities and that happen to be less masked in low-frequency traffic noise. This means the frequency shift and the amplitude increase are linked features of the same vocal production mechanism (Bird song and anthropogenic noise: vocal constraints).

Real-Time Plasticity Versus Long-Term Adaptation

A central question in urban bird research is whether song changes represent individual plasticity or evolutionary change across generations. The house finch study provided direct experimental evidence for short-term acoustic adaptation. Researchers exposed singing males to three continuous treatments in sequence: low, high, then low noise levels. Minimum song frequency increased significantly from low to high noise and decreased from high to low noise. The birds achieved this mostly by modifying the frequency of the same low-frequency syllable types across treatments. When different low-frequency syllables were used, those sung during the noisy condition were longer than those sung during the quiet condition (Experimental evidence for real-time song frequency shift).

This finding demonstrates that at least some urban song adjustments occur through individual plasticity within minutes or hours of noise exposure. The practical implication for researchers is that single recordings of urban birds may capture transient adjustments instead of stable population-level traits. Repeated sampling across noise conditions is necessary to distinguish short-term modulation from consistent divergence.

The distinction matters for conservation planning. If song changes are purely plastic, then reducing noise levels could restore natural song characteristics relatively quickly. If song changes reflect genetic differentiation or cultural evolution, the trajectory of recovery would be slower and less certain.

Habitat Structure and Song Transmission

Noise is not the only acoustic factor that differs between urban and rural environments. The physical structure of cities, including buildings, paved surfaces, and managed vegetation, changes how sound propagates. A 2011 study tested the degradation properties of woodland and city environments using both urban and rural great tit songs. Urban surroundings caused significantly less degradation to both song types. However, the transmission efficiency of rural song compared to urban song was significantly lower in the city. In woodland, differences between the two song types were generally minimal, though some measures showed rural song transmitted better in that setting (Degradation of rural and urban great tit song).

The researchers attempted to create artificial urban song by mimicking the increase in minimum frequency found in urban populations. This manipulation did not replicate the transmission properties of true urban song. The authors concluded that changes in other song characteristics, such as temporal adjustments, are needed to further increase transmission of an avian signal in the city. The structure of the acoustic environment, in addition to background noise, plays an important role in signal adaptation.

This finding has practical relevance for habitat management. Planting vegetation with specific structural characteristics, maintaining song post heights, and designing building layouts that reduce sound reflection could all influence acoustic communication success for urban birds. The oriental magpie-robin study found that low-rise residential areas provided preferred song post sites. Population density was significantly higher in low-rise residential areas than in urban parks and lowest in high-rise residential areas. Males in low-rise areas had greater song length, syllable numbers, frequency bandwidth, and song diversity than those in urban parks. The song differences were mainly related to habitat types, independent of singing height and perch type (Urban Low-Rise Residential Areas Provide Preferred Song Post Sites).

Circadian Timing Shifts

Urbanization affects the timing of bird song in addition to its spectral properties. A large-scale study using autonomous recording units across 220 sites in China found that all 60 bird species in highly urbanized areas advanced their dawn singing by an average of 23.89 minutes. Dusk singing time was delayed by an average of 6.56 minutes, though this difference was not statistically significant. Urban-adapted species showed greater shifts compared to urban-sensitive taxa like woodpeckers (Urbanization Modifies Birds' Acoustic Circadian Timing).

The same study analyzed 3,371 vocalizations from three widely distributed species along urbanization gradients. The Asian tit reduced its maximum frequency in highly urbanized areas. The light-vented bulbul and Eurasian tree sparrow increased their minimum frequency and adjusted song structure. The authors noted that while such adjustments in singing timing and acoustic features may improve signal transmission efficiency, the ecological consequences in terms of immediate and ultimate fitness remain largely unknown.

The dawn chorus advance has multiple possible explanations. Artificial light at night can trigger earlier singing. Reduced competition for acoustic space in the early morning may favor earlier singing. Alternatively, urban microclimates may shift the timing of insect prey activity. Researchers should measure multiple environmental variables, including light levels, temperature, and noise, when interpreting circadian shifts.

Fear Responses and Urban Colonization History

Birds in cities often tolerate closer human approach than their rural counterparts. A 2025 study in Prague used 4,420 flight initiation distance observations across 68 species to test whether this reduced fear is linked to urbanization timing or present-day urban tolerance. Species with a longer urban history, meaning they started breeding in urban areas earlier, showed significantly shorter flight initiation distances. Present-day urban tolerance based on breeding commonness was not related to flight initiation distance variation (Species' urbanization time predicts avian fear responses).

This finding emphasizes the role of long-term behavioral filtering or selection in shaping urban wildlife behavior. The practical implication is that species newly colonizing urban areas may retain high fear responses for extended periods. Conservation programs that assume rapid behavioral adjustment to human presence may need to account for species-specific colonization histories.

A separate study in Los Angeles examined whether domestic cat density affects avian risk assessment. The researchers analyzed 1,120 experimental approaches on 48 bird species across 11 sites. At the community scale, cat and human population densities had no significant effects on flight initiation distance. Species-specific analyses showed that house finch flight initiation distance was positively associated with human density while house sparrow flight initiation distance was positively associated with cat density. Bird height above ground was positively associated with human density, possibly reflecting increased vigilance. Larger-bodied birds, ground-foraging individuals, and actively foraging birds had shorter flight initiation distances (Domestic Cat Density and Avian Risk Assessment).

The absence of community-level effects in Los Angeles suggests that urban birds in densely populated areas may be tolerant to human and cat presence, potentially masking effects seen in less densely populated areas. Researchers should interpret flight initiation distance data within the context of local human and predator densities.

Behavioral Homogenization Across Species

Urbanization can erode behavioral diversity across species, a process termed behavioral homogenization. This concept describes the human-driven convergence of behavioral traits across individuals, populations, and species across space and time. Global examples include fear responses, foraging, communication, activity patterns, social behavior, cognition and exploration, habitat use, breeding-site choice, migration, and heterospecific interaction networks (Behavioral convergence under urbanization).

The ecological and evolutionary consequences of behavioral homogenization include losses of animal cultures and changes in human-wildlife conflict. For researchers, this framework suggests that studying single species in isolation may miss community-level patterns. For land managers, it implies that preserving behavioral diversity may require maintaining a range of urban morphologies instead of optimizing for one habitat type.

The oriental magpie-robin study provides a concrete example of how urban morphology filters species. The species was well-adapted to low-rise building morphology but rejected emerging high-rise buildings. The authors called for studies to determine which urban morphologies are conducive to enhancing biodiversity and encouraging animals to settle in urban areas (Urban Low-Rise Residential Areas Provide Preferred Song Post Sites).

Trophic Guild Responses and Community Composition

Urbanization filters bird communities by trophic guild and foraging strata. A study in the Tropical Andes of southern Ecuador recorded 1,257 individuals belonging to 74 bird species across forest, forest-pasture, pasture, and urban sites. Bird species richness and abundance decreased significantly from forest to urban sites. Granivorous birds showed a positive response to the urbanization gradient while insectivorous birds showed a negative response. Insectivorous birds were more abundant in forest sites and decreased in abundance across the gradient. The proportion of birds using different foraging strata changed drastically along the urban gradient (The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of Urbanization).

These trophic shifts have cascading effects. Insectivorous birds provide natural pest control, and their decline in urban areas may increase reliance on chemical pest management. Granivorous birds, often including species considered pests, may increase in abundance and require management attention.

A comparative study across three southwestern US cities found little evidence for non-random trait shifts in urban avian assemblages. Only distributions of diet guild, migratory status, and main habitat showed significant changes. The authors found no evidence for non-random phylogenetic patterns. Species in urban species pools had a higher median reporting frequency than species in regional species pools in all three cities, though this difference was statistically significant in only one city. Levels of biotic homogenization were more severe in spring than in winter (Effects of Urbanization on Native Bird Species in Three Southwestern US Cities).

The geographic idiosyncrasy of these results cautions against broad generalizations. Urban bird communities in arid southwestern US cities may respond differently than those in temperate European or tropical Andean cities. Local data collection remains essential for management decisions.

Nest Predation Along Urban Gradients

Predation pressure on bird nests varies with urbanization, but the direction of the effect depends on study methodology. A meta-analysis found highly heterogeneous effects among studies. For artificial nests, survival rate tended to decrease with increasing urbanization, meaning higher predation in more urbanized sites. For natural nests, survival tended to increase with the level of urbanization. The latter finding supports the hypotheses that urban habitats serve as predation-safe zones and that an urban nest predator paradox exists (Does Urbanization Affect Predation of Bird Nests?).

The discrepancy between artificial and natural nest studies may stem from differences in experimental design, such as cavity nests being more commonly studied in natural nest studies, intrinsic differences between nest types, including the lack of parental nest defense in artificial nests, or sampling bias. The authors concluded that the direction of the relationship between urbanization and nest predation depends on the methodology of the study.

For researchers, this means that artificial nest experiments should be interpreted with caution and ideally validated against natural nest monitoring. For land managers, the finding that natural nest survival can be higher in urban areas suggests that cities may serve as refuges for some species, provided other resources are available.

Practical Assessment Workflow for Urban Bird Adaptations

Researchers and land managers can assess urban bird adaptations using a structured workflow that distinguishes evidence from inference.

Step 1: Define the urbanization gradient. Select sites that represent a range of building density, vegetation cover, noise levels, and human activity. The tropical island-continent study used three levels: patches of native vegetation, medium density urbanized areas with vegetation along streets and gardens, and residential areas with less vegetation cover and higher building density (Impact of Urbanization to an Island and the Continent). Document the specific characteristics of each site instead of relying on a simple urban-rural binary.

Step 2: Standardize acoustic recording protocols. Use autonomous recording units deployed at consistent heights and times. The circadian timing study used SM4 units across 220 sites (Urbanization Modifies Birds' Acoustic Circadian Timing). Record at the same times across sites to control for diel variation. Measure ambient noise with a calibrated sound pressure level meter in decibels at each recording location, following the protocol used in the tropical bird study (Dominant frequency of songs in tropical bird species).

Step 3: Analyze song characteristics systematically. Measure minimum frequency, maximum frequency, dominant frequency, song length, syllable number, frequency bandwidth, and song diversity. The great tit studies provide comparative baselines for these metrics (Cities change the songs of birds). Use spectrogram software with standardized settings across all recordings.

Step 4: Conduct controlled noise experiments where feasible. The house finch study provides a model for experimental manipulation. Expose singing males to sequential low-high-low noise treatments and measure real-time frequency adjustments (Experimental evidence for real-time song frequency shift). This distinguishes plastic responses from fixed population traits.

Step 5: Measure flight initiation distance with standardized approaches. Use consistent approach speeds, observer clothing, and starting distances. The Prague study used 4,420 observations across 68 species with Bayesian phylogenetic mixed models to control for ecological and contextual variables (Species' urbanization time predicts avian fear responses). Record body size, foraging stratum, and activity state for each observation.

Step 6: Document habitat structure and urban morphology. Measure building height, vegetation cover, perch availability, and noise levels at each site. The oriental magpie-robin study distinguished urban parks, low-rise residential areas, and high-rise residential areas and found significant differences in bird density and song characteristics among them (Urban Low-Rise Residential Areas Provide Preferred Song Post Sites).

Step 7: Integrate data across scales. Combine acoustic, behavioral, and habitat data to test whether observed song differences correlate with noise levels, habitat structure, or both. The transmission efficiency study demonstrated that habitat structure contributes to song degradation independently of background noise (Degradation of rural and urban great tit song).

Records and Measurements for Long-Term Monitoring

Long-term monitoring of urban bird adaptations requires consistent record keeping. Maintain a database with the following fields for each recording session: site identifier, date, time, weather conditions, temperature, ambient noise level in decibels, recording equipment settings, and observer identity. For each song analyzed, record species, individual identifier if known, song type, and all spectral and temporal measurements.

Track colonization history for each species at each site. The Prague study demonstrated that urbanization timing predicts fear responses better than present-day abundance (Species' urbanization time predicts avian fear responses). Historical records, citizen science data, and museum specimens can establish when species first bred in urban areas.

Document management actions and environmental changes that could affect acoustic environments. Road construction, building demolition, vegetation management, and noise barrier installation all alter sound transmission. The transmission efficiency study showed that urban surroundings caused less sound degradation than woodland, meaning structural changes have measurable acoustic consequences (Degradation of rural and urban great tit song).

Common Failure Patterns in Urban Bird Studies

Several methodological failures recur in urban bird adaptation research. Studies that compare only two sites, one urban and one rural, cannot distinguish urbanization effects from site-specific differences. The great tit study avoided this by sampling ten city-forest pairs across Europe (Cities change the songs of birds). Studies should include multiple replicates within each urbanization level.

Studies that rely solely on correlative data cannot establish causation. The 2011 house finch study addressed this through experimental noise manipulation (Experimental evidence for real-time song frequency shift). Without experimental validation, observed frequency differences could reflect habitat structure, temperature, or other confounding variables.

Studies that use artificial nests to measure predation risk may produce results that contradict natural nest studies. The meta-analysis found opposite trends for artificial and natural nests along urbanization gradients (Does Urbanization Affect Predation of Bird Nests?). Researchers should validate artificial nest findings with natural nest monitoring.

Studies that measure only one song characteristic may miss compensatory adjustments. The house finch study found that birds modified both frequency and syllable duration in response to noise (Experimental evidence for real-time song frequency shift). The transmission efficiency study found that frequency shifts alone did not replicate urban song transmission properties, suggesting temporal adjustments are also important (Degradation of rural and urban great tit song).

Limitations of Current Evidence

The evidence base for urban bird adaptations has several important limitations. Most studies focus on a small number of successful urban colonizers, including great tits, blackbirds, house finches, and house sparrows. The acoustic adaptation hypothesis may apply differently to less adaptable species. The circadian timing study found that urban-sensitive taxa like woodpeckers showed smaller shifts than urban-adapted species (Urbanization Modifies Birds' Acoustic Circadian Timing).

The fitness consequences of urban song changes remain largely unknown. The circadian timing study explicitly noted that the ecological consequences of singing adjustments, particularly in terms of immediate and ultimate fitness, remain unknown (Urbanization Modifies Birds' Acoustic Circadian Timing). Higher song frequency may improve signal transmission in noise but could also affect mate preferences or territory defense in ways not yet measured.

The debate over whether frequency shifts are adaptive or epiphenomenal remains unresolved. The 2010 modeling study found that amplitude adjustments were more effective than frequency shifts for improving communication distance (Birds and anthropogenic noise: are urban songs adaptive?). The 2013 phonetogram study showed that frequency and amplitude are linked in blackbirds, meaning the two adjustments cannot be fully separated (Bird song and anthropogenic noise: vocal constraints).

Geographic coverage is uneven. Most experimental studies come from Europe and North America. The tropical studies from Brazil and Ecuador provide important contrasts, but many tropical urban areas remain unstudied. The island-continent comparison found that urban matrices filter similar species from each regional pool, but individual species responded differently on islands and continents (Impact of Urbanization to an Island and the Continent).

Welfare and Conservation Context

Urban bird adaptations have direct welfare implications. Birds that sing at higher frequencies or shift their circadian timing may experience increased energetic costs. The phonetogram study showed that higher-frequency elements can be produced at higher amplitudes in blackbirds, suggesting a link between frequency and vocal effort (Bird song and anthropogenic noise: vocal constraints). If urban birds must sing louder to be heard, they may expend more energy on vocal communication.

Reduced flight initiation distances in urban birds may increase risk from predators, including domestic cats. The Los Angeles study found that domestic cats kill an estimated 1.3 to 4.0 billion birds annually in the United States and are a major source of mortality for urban birds (Domestic Cat Density and Avian Risk Assessment). While the study found no community-level association between cat density and flight initiation distance, species-specific effects were detected for house sparrows.

Conservation programs should consider behavioral adaptations when designing urban habitats. The oriental magpie-robin study suggests that low-rise residential areas can provide preferred habitat for some species, while high-rise areas may exclude them (Urban Low-Rise Residential Areas Provide Preferred Song Post Sites). Urban planning that maintains vegetation along streets and gardens, as described in the island-continent study, may support more diverse bird communities (Impact of Urbanization to an Island and the Continent).

The behavioral homogenization framework suggests that conservation should aim to preserve behavioral diversity, beyond species presence (Behavioral convergence under urbanization). This may require maintaining a range of urban morphologies, noise regimes, and habitat structures across a city instead of optimizing for a single design.

Professional Escalation Criteria

Researchers and land managers should escalate concerns to relevant authorities when specific conditions are observed. If monitoring detects rapid declines in urban bird populations despite apparent behavioral adaptations, investigate whether noise levels, habitat loss, or predator pressure have crossed critical thresholds. If song characteristics shift dramatically over short periods, verify whether the change reflects plasticity or indicates a novel environmental stressor.

If flight initiation distances decrease to levels that suggest habituation to humans, assess whether birds are also habituating to predators. The Los Angeles study found that urban birds may be tolerant to human and cat presence, potentially masking effects seen in less densely populated areas (Domestic Cat Density and Avian Risk Assessment). This tolerance could increase vulnerability to other threats.

If conservation interventions aim to restore natural song characteristics, establish baseline data before intervention and monitor recovery trajectories. The house finch study demonstrated that song frequency can shift within hours of noise changes (Experimental evidence for real-time song frequency shift), suggesting that noise reduction could produce relatively rapid acoustic recovery. However, the transmission efficiency study showed that habitat structure also affects song degradation (Degradation of rural and urban great tit song), meaning vegetation management may be necessary alongside noise reduction.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why do urban birds sing at higher frequencies?

Urban noise is dominated by low frequencies, primarily from traffic. Higher-frequency song elements are less masked by this low-frequency noise. The great tit study found consistently higher minimum frequencies in ten out of ten city-forest comparisons across Europe (Cities change the songs of birds). However, a modeling study found that frequency shifts improve communication distance only marginally compared to amplitude adjustments, and the frequency change may be a physiological side effect of singing louder (Birds and anthropogenic noise: are urban songs adaptive?).

Can birds adjust their songs in real time to noise?

Yes. House finches exposed to sequential low-high-low noise treatments significantly increased minimum song frequency when noise increased and decreased it when noise decreased. The birds achieved this mostly by modifying the frequency of the same low-frequency syllable types across treatments (Experimental evidence for real-time song frequency shift). This demonstrates individual plasticity instead of genetic change.

Do all bird species respond to urbanization the same way?

No. The tropical bird study found that eight of nine species sang higher dominant frequencies near urban areas, but one species, Myiothlypis flaveola, did not change its song frequency (Dominant frequency of songs in tropical bird species). The circadian timing study found that urban-adapted species showed greater shifts in dawn singing than urban-sensitive taxa like woodpeckers (Urbanization Modifies Birds' Acoustic Circadian Timing).

Does urban habitat structure affect song transmission beyond noise?

Yes. A study testing sound degradation in woodland and city environments found that urban surroundings caused significantly less degradation to songs, but rural song transmitted less efficiently than urban song in the city. Mimicking the frequency increase found in urban song did not replicate the transmission properties of true urban song, suggesting temporal adjustments are also needed (Degradation of rural and urban great tit song).

Are urban birds less afraid of humans?

Species with a longer history of urban colonization show significantly shorter flight initiation distances, meaning reduced fear responses. Present-day urban tolerance based on breeding commonness was not related to flight initiation distance variation (Species' urbanization time predicts avian fear responses). This suggests that reduced fear develops over long periods of urban residence.

Does urbanization affect when birds sing?

Yes. A study across 220 sites in China found that all 60 bird species in highly urbanized areas advanced their dawn singing by an average of 23.89 minutes. Dusk singing was delayed by an average of 6.56 minutes, though this difference was not statistically significant (Urbanization Modifies Birds' Acoustic Circadian Timing).

Do urban areas have higher or lower nest predation?

The answer depends on study methodology. A meta-analysis found that artificial nest survival decreased with urbanization while natural nest survival increased with urbanization. The discrepancy may stem from differences in experimental design, intrinsic differences between nest types, or sampling bias (Does Urbanization Affect Predation of Bird Nests?).

What are the conservation implications of urban bird adaptations?

Behavioral adaptations may allow some species to persist in cities, but they also indicate environmental stress. The behavioral homogenization framework suggests that urbanization erodes behavioral diversity across species, with consequences for animal cultures and human-wildlife conflict (Behavioral convergence under urbanization). Conservation planning should consider maintaining a range of urban morphologies to support diverse bird communities.

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References and Further Reading

• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
• Bird song and anthropogenic noise: vocal constraints may explain why birds sing higher-frequency songs in cities.. Proceedings. Biological sciences, 2013.
• Experimental evidence for real-time song frequency shift in response to urban noise in a passerine bird.. Biology letters, 2011.
• Urban Low-Rise Residential Areas Provide Preferred Song Post Sites for a Resident Songbird.. Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, 2022.
• Cities change the songs of birds.. Current biology : CB, 2006.
• Degradation of rural and urban great tit song: testing transmission efficiency.. PloS one, 2011.
• Dominant frequency of songs in tropical bird species is higher in sites with high noise pollution.. Environmental pollution (Barking, Essex : 1987), 2018.
• Birds and anthropogenic noise: are urban songs adaptive?. The American naturalist, 2010.
• Urbanization Modifies Birds' Acoustic Circadian Timing and Characteristics.. Integrative zoology, 2026.
• Behavioral convergence under urbanization: An overlooked dimension of biotic homogenization.. 2026.
• Comparative Evaluation of Hanging Objects as Environmental Enrichment Tools on Broiler Behavior, Welfare, Growth, Serum Chemistry, and Meat Quality Traits.. 2026.
• Domestic Cat Density is Generally Not Associated with Variation in Avian Risk Assessment in a Mega-City. 2025.
• Conservation and Captive Breeding of the Asian Houbara Bustard (&lt,i&gt,Chlamydotis macqueenii&lt,/i&gt,).. 2026.
• Species' urbanization time but not present urban tolerance predicts avian fear responses towards human.. 2025.
• Impacts of urbanization on multiple dimensions of bird diversity in Atlantic forest landscapes. Global Ecology and Conservation, 2024.
• Avoid, adapt or exploit: Re-visiting bird responses to urbanization using a novel landscape approach. Global Ecology and Conservation, 2023.
• The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of Urbanization: Response of a Bird Community in the Neotropical Andes. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 2022.
• Ecological traits and landscape characteristics predicting bird sensitivity to urbanization in city parks. Basic and Applied Ecology, 2021.
• Impact of Urbanization to an Island and the Continent: Species Turnover and Nestedness in Neotropical Bird Assemblages. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 2021.
• Effects of Urbanization on Native Bird Species in Three Southwestern US Cities. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 2019.
• Focusing on rapid urbanization areas can control the rapid loss of migratory water bird habitats in China. Global Ecology and Conservation, 2019.
• Does Urbanization Affect Predation of Bird Nests? A Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 2017.
• Blackbirds sing higher-pitched songs in cities: adaptation to habitat acoustics or side-effect of urbanization?. Animal Behaviour, 2009.
• Impacts of ambient noise on bird song and adaptation strategies of birds. Chinese Journal of Ecology, 2011.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.