The Fastest Animal in the World: Speed Comparisons Across Land, Air, and Sea

The fastest animal in the world depends on the category being measured. The cheetah holds the record as the fastest land animal, the peregrine falcon is the fastest bird in a diving flight, and the sailfish is widely cited as one of the fastest fish in the ocean. Each of these animals achieves speed through different anatomical and physiological adaptations, and direct comparisons across land, air, and sea require careful attention to how speed is measured. This article compares the fastest animals in each major environment, explains the biomechanical basis for their speed, and provides a reference table for quick comparison.

At a Glance: Fastest Animals by Category

The table below summarizes the fastest animals in each major category, the speeds recorded in peer-reviewed studies, and the key adaptations that enable their performance. Speeds vary by measurement method, individual condition, and context such as hunting versus sustained travel.

The cheetah speed of 25.9 m/s was recorded during a study of 367 predominantly hunting runs by five wild cheetahs in Botswana, published in Nature in 2013. This remains the most detailed locomotor information on hunting dynamics of a large cursorial predator in its natural habitat (Locomotion dynamics of hunting in wild cheetahs). Earlier anatomical work estimated cheetah top speeds at 29 m/s, but the field-recorded value of 25.9 m/s represents actual measured performance during natural hunting behavior (Functional anatomy of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) forelimb).

Why Speed Comparisons Require Defined Categories

Speed comparisons across animal groups are complicated by differences in how speed is achieved and measured. A land animal must support its body weight against gravity while generating forward propulsion. A bird in a dive uses gravity to accelerate and does not need to generate lift during the steepest part of the descent. A fish moves through a medium that is roughly 800 times denser than air, which creates different drag forces and energy demands.

The question of which animal is fastest therefore depends on whether the comparison uses absolute speed, speed relative to body size, or speed within a specific locomotor mode. For example, the cheetah is the fastest land animal in absolute terms, but the scaling of mechanical demands and muscle supply means that the fastest runners are of intermediate size. Very small animals are limited by the high power demands during brief stance periods, while very large animals are constrained by the mechanical work demand each step (Why are the fastest runners of intermediate size? Contrasting scaling of mechanical demands and muscle supply of work and power).

This size-speed relationship has practical implications for understanding animal performance. The cheetah's high maximum speed can be attributed as much to its body size as to its anatomical and physiological adaptations. Animals that are much smaller or much larger than the cheetah face fundamental biomechanical constraints that limit their maximum running speed.

The Cheetah: Fastest Land Animal

Measured Speed in the Wild

The cheetah is recognized as the fastest land animal, but direct measurements of its speed in natural hunting conditions were limited until the development of tracking collars combining Global Positioning System (GPS) and inertial measurement units. A 2013 study published in Nature used these collars on five wild cheetahs in Botswana and recorded a top speed of 25.9 m/s, equivalent to 93 km/h or 58 mph (Locomotion dynamics of hunting in wild cheetahs).

An important finding from this study is that most cheetah hunts involved only moderate speeds. The top speed was recorded during a specific hunting run, but the animals did not sustain maximum velocity throughout their pursuits. The study also recorded some of the highest measured values for lateral and forward acceleration, deceleration, and body-mass-specific power for any terrestrial mammal. This means the cheetah's hunting success depends on rapid acceleration and turning ability as much as on top speed.

Biomechanics of Cheetah Speed

The cheetah's galloping gait shows three distinctive characteristics that contribute to its high-speed performance. A modeling study published in Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology in 2022 identified small vertical movement of the center of mass, small whole-body pitching movement, and large spine bending movement as the key features of cheetah galloping (Three Characteristics of Cheetah Galloping Improve Running Performance Through Spinal Movement: A Modeling Study). The study used a simple model with a spine joint and torsional spring to emulate body flexibility and found that solutions exhibiting these three characteristics achieved high gait performance.

The spine movement is particularly important. The cheetah's flexible spine allows the body to extend and compress during each stride, effectively increasing stride length without requiring longer limbs. This spinal movement also contributes to the small vertical movement of the center of mass, which reduces the energy lost to vertical oscillation.

Musculoskeletal Adaptations

The cheetah forelimb contains several adaptations that support high-speed running and maneuvering. A comparative anatomical study of the cheetah forelimb against the racing greyhound, an animal of similar mass that can only attain a top speed of 17 m/s, identified several species differences (Functional anatomy of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) forelimb). The cheetah has a long-fibered serratus ventralis muscle that may translate the scapula along the rib cage, effectively increasing limb length. The proximal limb contains many large physiological cross-sectional area muscles with long moment arms, suggesting the limb resists large ground reaction force joint torques instead of functioning as a simple strut.

The large digital flexors and extensors in the cheetah forelimb may be used to dig the digits into the ground, aiding with traction when galloping and maneuvering. This traction is essential for the rapid turns and acceleration changes that characterize hunting behavior.

Inner Ear Specialization for High-Speed Hunting

The cheetah's inner ear shows unique adaptations that support its high-speed hunting strategy. A study using high-resolution X-ray computed micro-tomography compared the vestibular system of the inner ear in 12 modern and two fossil felid species (Recent inner ear specialization for high-speed hunting in cheetahs). The modern cheetah has one of the greatest volumes of the vestibular system and distinctive dorsal extension of the anterior and posterior semicircular canals. These features correlate with greater afferent sensitivity of the inner ear to head motions, facilitating postural and visual stability during high-speed prey pursuit and capture.

These inner ear features are not present in the fossil cheetah Acinonyx pardinensis, which went extinct about 126,000 years ago. This demonstrates that the unique inner ear of the living cheetah species evolved recently, possibly later than the middle Pleistocene.

Hunting Strategy and Speed Management

The cheetah does not simply run at maximum speed during a hunt. A study of hunting dynamics using miniaturized data loggers recorded cheetahs attaining hunting speeds of up to 18.94 m/s with acceleration up to 7.5 m/s² (Cheetahs, Acinonyx jubatus, balance turn capacity with pace when chasing prey). The greatest angular velocities were achieved during the terminal phase of the hunt. The interplay between forward and lateral acceleration showed that the total forces involved in speed changes and turning were approximately constant over time but varied with prey type.

Instead of a simple maximum speed chase, cheetahs first accelerate to decrease the distance to their prey, then reduce speed 5 to 8 seconds from the end of the hunt to facilitate rapid turns that match prey escape tactics. The strategy varies according to prey species. This balance between speed and maneuverability is a key feature of cheetah hunting behavior.

The Peregrine Falcon: Fastest Bird

Wing Morphing and Speed

The peregrine falcon is widely recognized as the fastest bird during its hunting dive, known as a stoop. The biomechanical basis for this speed includes the ability to change wing shape and area to an exceptional degree. A quantitative analysis of the morphing wing mechanism of raptors focused specifically on Falco peregrinus and used computed tomography scanning to reconstruct the wing skeleton during extending motions (Quantitative analysis of the morphing wing mechanism of raptors: Analysis methods, folding motions, and bionic design of Falco Peregrinus). The study identified the contribution of forelimb bones to the extending and folding motions and proposed a four-bar mechanical model that can track bone motion paths with high fidelity.

Raptors can change the shape and area of their wings faster and more efficiently than other birds, insects, or bats. This morphing ability allows the peregrine falcon to adopt a streamlined posture during high-speed dives and to reconfigure its wings rapidly for maneuvering during prey capture.

Eyelid and Eye Protection at Speed

High-speed diving creates significant aerodynamic forces that affect the eyes and surrounding structures. A histological study of the upper, lower, and third eyelids in birds of prey examined 34 individuals from 18 species representing Accipitriformes, Falconiformes, and Strigiformes (Descriptive histological analysis of the upper, lower, and third eyelids and the conjunctiva-associated lymphoid tissue in birds of prey). The third eyelid, also known as the nictitating membrane, and the conjunctiva-associated lymphoid tissue exhibited the most variation among the analyzed species. Strigiformes, the owls, emerged as the most distinctive group with the greatest differences in eyelid morphology.

The nictitating membrane serves a protective function during high-speed flight, shielding the eye from debris and aerodynamic forces while maintaining some visibility. This is particularly relevant for falcons that dive at high speeds and need to track prey visually throughout the descent.

Training and Rehabilitation Considerations

The speed and hunting ability of raptors have practical implications for their care and rehabilitation. A study on high-tech training for birds of prey addressed the problem that raptors are often released after hospitalization when muscular recovery is still insufficient for efficient hunting (High-Tech Training for Birds of Prey). The study combined classic falconry techniques with modern technologies, including specific workouts with drones, to train raptors to develop the ability to catch, grasp, and airlift prey at different speeds, altitudes, and resistance levels.

The main findings were a rapid increase in raptor speed, muscular growth and endurance, and successful reintroduction of a wild bird. This training approach addresses the risk that convalescent birds may die from starvation within a few days of release if they cannot hunt efficiently, while also avoiding the problem of birds remaining dependent on caretakers when trained only with classic falconry techniques.

The Sailfish: Fastest Fish

Swimming Performance and Body Design

The sailfish is frequently cited as one of the fastest fish in the ocean, with a streamlined body shape adapted for high-speed swimming. The sailfish possesses outstanding motion performance among marine species, and its movement characteristics have inspired multiple engineering applications. A study on the cooperative motion mechanism of a bionic sailfish robot observed the shape structure and motion characteristics of sailfish and designed a robotic fish that performs cooperative motion through dorsal and caudal fins (Cooperative Motion Mechanism of a Bionic Sailfish Robot With High Motion Performance). The study found that the vortex formed by the dorsal fin can enhance the propulsive performance of the caudal fin, and the phase difference between the dorsal and caudal fins during cooperative motion significantly affects forward speed.

The sailfish's dart-like shape during high-speed swimming is enhanced by its lack of scales, which minimizes friction with water. A bio-inspired design study for aquatic robot development based on sailfish locomotion noted this characteristic and replicated it in a robotic prototype intended for rescue operations and ocean research (Bio-Inspired Design and Additive Manufacturing Techniques for Aquatic Robot Development Based on the Locomotion of the Istiophorus (Sailfish)).

Hunting Behavior and Symbiotic Relationships

Sailfish hunting behavior includes interactions with other species that affect their swimming patterns. A study of the symbiotic cleaning relationship between sailfish and remoras observed that marlin suckers displayed cleaning behavior, inserting their heads into small depressions along the base of the sailfish's fins and pecking at the host's injured snout (Symbiotic cleaning relationship between a sailfish (Istiophorus platypterus) and remoras (Remora osteochir)). In response, the sailfish reduced its swimming speed and opened its operculum, allowing the marlin sucker to exit the gill cavity. These behaviors are consistent with the typical cleaning-request behavior observed in host species interacting with cleaner fish.

This observation demonstrates that sailfish modulate their swimming speed in response to social and symbiotic interactions. The ability to reduce speed and open the gill cavity for cleaning partners shows behavioral flexibility in speed management.

Sailfish as a Model for Engineering

The sailfish has become a model organism for bio-inspired engineering, particularly in the development of optimization algorithms and robotic systems. The Sailfish Optimizer is a nature-inspired metaheuristic algorithm inspired by a group of hunting sailfish (The Sailfish Optimizer: A novel nature-inspired metaheuristic algorithm for solving constrained engineering optimization problems). The algorithm consists of two populations, sailfish for intensification of the search around the best solution and sardines for diversification of the search space. It has been applied to various engineering problems, including robot path planning and medical imaging diagnosis.

The sailfish's hunting strategy, which involves coordinating attacks on sardine schools, provides a model for optimization algorithms that balance exploration and exploitation. This demonstrates how understanding animal speed and hunting behavior can lead to practical applications in technology.

Comparing Speed Across Environments

Measurement Challenges

Comparing speeds across land, air, and sea requires acknowledging different measurement methods and environmental conditions. Land speeds are typically measured over a defined distance or during natural hunting runs using GPS and inertial measurement units. Air speeds during dives are difficult to measure directly and are often estimated from video analysis or tracking devices. Aquatic speeds are complicated by water currents, measurement depth, and the difficulty of observing fish in their natural environment.

The approved sources for this article do not provide a specific measured speed for the peregrine falcon or the sailfish. The cheetah speed of 25.9 m/s is the only directly measured speed from the approved evidence. Claims about the peregrine falcon being the fastest bird and the sailfish being among the fastest fish are based on general scientific recognition, but specific speed values require consultation of additional sources beyond the approved evidence packet.

Relative Speed and Body Size

The relationship between body size and maximum speed is not linear. The fastest land animals are of intermediate size, as demonstrated by the scaling of mechanical demands and muscle supply (Why are the fastest runners of intermediate size? Contrasting scaling of mechanical demands and muscle supply of work and power). Cheetahs, antelope, greyhounds, and racehorses have been measured running much faster than elephants or elephant shrews. This pattern reflects fundamental constraints on muscle work capacity and instantaneous muscle power production.

For very large animals, maximum speed is constrained by the mechanical work demand each step. For very small animals, maximum speed is limited by the high power demands during brief stance periods. The cheetah's body size places it in the optimal range where these constraints are balanced.

Locomotor Modes and Speed

Different animals achieve speed through different locomotor modes. The cheetah uses a galloping gait with a suspended phase. The hippopotamus, by contrast, trots at all speeds and only uses brief aerial phases at the fastest relative speeds, a discovery reported in a 2024 study of footfall patterns and stride parameters (Footfall patterns and stride parameters of Common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) on land). This study of 169 strides from 32 hippos found that no hippos used other than trotting or near-trotting footfall patterns, but at the fastest relative speeds they used brief aerial phases.

The hippopotamus example illustrates that body size and morphology strongly influence the locomotor mode available to an animal. The hippo's semi-aquatic habits and unusual morphology raise questions about how locomotion evolved in Hippopotamidae, and the data help form a baseline for clinical veterinary assessments of lameness.

Neural and Sensory Basis of Fast Movement

Vestibular System and Reflex Speed

Fast movement requires rapid sensory processing and motor responses. The mammalian vestibular system drives some of the fastest reflex pathways in the nervous system, ensuring stable gaze and postural control for locomotion on land. A 2023 study in The Journal of Neuroscience provided evidence that amniotes evolved a unique postsynaptic terminal in the inner ear vestibular organs called the calyx that receives both quantal and nonquantal synaptic inputs from Type I sensory hair cells (Evidence That Ultrafast Nonquantal Transmission Underlies Synchronized Vestibular Action Potential Generation).

The nonquantal synaptic current includes an ultrafast component that underlies the exceptionally high synchronization index of vestibular afferent neurons in response to sound and vibration. The study presented three lines of evidence supporting the hypothesis that nonquantal transmission is responsible for synchronized vestibular action potentials of short latency. Stimulus-evoked vestibular nerve compound action potentials occur without measurable synaptic delay and are three times shorter than the latency of auditory nerve compound action potentials. The fast component of nonquantal transmission at calyceal synapses is indefatigable and responsible for ultrafast responses of vestibular organs evoked by transient stimuli.

This neural specialization is directly relevant to the cheetah's high-speed hunting. The inner ear adaptations described in the cheetah study correlate with greater afferent sensitivity to head motions, and the ultrafast vestibular reflexes described in the guinea pig study provide the neural basis for maintaining gaze and posture during rapid movement.

Head Saccades and Visual Stabilization

Rapid movement also requires visual stabilization. A study of lovebirds examined how they maneuver rapidly using super-fast head saccades and image feature stabilization (How lovebirds maneuver rapidly using super-fast head saccades and image feature stabilization). While this study focuses on a different species, it illustrates the general principle that animals moving at high speed must stabilize their visual field to navigate and track targets.

The vestibular system and visual stabilization mechanisms work together to enable high-speed locomotion. The cheetah's inner ear adaptations support head and gaze stability during prey pursuit, while the peregrine falcon's nictitating membrane protects the eye during high-speed dives.

Practical Applications and Assessment

Measuring Animal Speed in Field Conditions

For researchers and wildlife managers, measuring animal speed requires appropriate technology and methodology. The cheetah study used a custom tracking collar combining GPS and inertial measurement units to capture locomotor dynamics during natural hunting runs (Locomotion dynamics of hunting in wild cheetahs). This approach allowed the researchers to record speed, acceleration, and deceleration in free-ranging animals without interfering with natural behavior.

Key considerations for field speed measurement include:

• Select tracking devices with sufficient sampling rates to capture rapid acceleration changes
• Deploy devices on multiple individuals to account for individual variation
• Record behavioral context to distinguish hunting runs from other locomotion
• Validate device measurements against known distances or speeds

Records and Data Management

Maintaining accurate records of speed measurements requires standardized protocols. Researchers should document the measurement method, environmental conditions, animal identity, and behavioral context for each speed record. The cheetah study recorded 367 predominantly hunting runs from five animals, providing a substantial dataset for analysis (Locomotion dynamics of hunting in wild cheetahs).

For comparative studies, researchers should report speeds in consistent units and include both the measurement context and the method used. The cheetah speed of 25.9 m/s was reported alongside equivalent values of 58 mph and 93 km/h, facilitating comparison across different unit systems.

Common Failure Patterns in Speed Assessment

Several common errors can affect speed assessment in animals:

• Confusing maximum recorded speed with sustained speed
• Comparing speeds measured by different methods without noting methodological differences
• Extrapolating from anatomical estimates to actual performance
• Ignoring the effect of body size on speed capacity
• Failing to account for behavioral context, such as hunting versus traveling

The cheetah example illustrates the importance of direct measurement. Anatomical studies estimated top speeds of 29 m/s, but field measurements recorded 25.9 m/s during natural hunting (Functional anatomy of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) forelimb). The difference between estimated and measured speeds highlights the need for empirical data.

Welfare and Safety Context

Animal Welfare in Speed Research

Research on fast animals raises welfare considerations. The cheetah tracking study used collars designed specifically for the animals, and the research provided information on hunting dynamics that was previously unavailable (Locomotion dynamics of hunting in wild cheetahs). Researchers should ensure that tracking devices do not impede movement or cause discomfort.

For captive animals, understanding natural speed and locomotor behavior supports appropriate enclosure design and enrichment. The hippopotamus locomotion study noted that footfall pattern data help form a baseline for clinical veterinary assessments of lameness (Footfall patterns and stride parameters of Common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) on land). This demonstrates the practical welfare application of locomotion research.

Rehabilitation and Release Considerations

Raptor rehabilitation programs must consider the speed and hunting abilities of birds before release. The high-tech training study addressed the problem that raptors are often released when muscular recovery is insufficient for efficient hunting (High-Tech Training for Birds of Prey). Birds that cannot hunt efficiently are at risk of dying from starvation within a few days of release.

The training approach using drones allowed raptors to develop the ability to catch, grasp, and airlift prey at different speeds, altitudes, and resistance levels. This method improved muscular strength while limiting habituation to humans, addressing both the physical and behavioral requirements for successful release.

Professional Escalation Criteria

Wildlife professionals should escalate concerns to specialized experts in specific situations:

• If a captive animal shows abnormal locomotor patterns that may indicate lameness or injury
• If a rehabilitated raptor cannot achieve sufficient speed and maneuverability for hunting after training
• If field measurements of animal speed suggest unusual performance that may indicate health problems
• If behavioral observations indicate that an animal cannot perform species-typical locomotor behaviors

Veterinary assessment of lameness in hippos can use footfall pattern data as a baseline for normal locomotion (Footfall patterns and stride parameters of Common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) on land). Similar approaches may apply to other species where normal locomotor patterns are documented.

Limitations of Current Knowledge

Gaps in Speed Data

The approved evidence for this article provides a directly measured speed only for the cheetah. Specific measured speeds for the peregrine falcon in diving flight and the sailfish in swimming are not included in the approved sources. Researchers and readers should consult additional peer-reviewed literature for specific speed values in these species.

The cheetah speed of 25.9 m/s was recorded from five animals in one study area in Botswana (Locomotion dynamics of hunting in wild cheetahs). This may not represent the maximum possible speed for all cheetahs across their range. Individual variation, prey type, terrain, and other factors can influence measured speeds.

Methodological Limitations

Different measurement methods have inherent limitations. GPS collars provide location data at intervals that may miss brief speed peaks. Inertial measurement units can capture rapid movements but require careful calibration. Video analysis of bird dives depends on camera frame rates and tracking accuracy. Aquatic speed measurements are complicated by water currents and the difficulty of following fish in their natural environment.

The cheetah study combined GPS and inertial measurement units to address some of these limitations, but the approach still has constraints. The study noted that most cheetah hunts involved only moderate speeds, suggesting that maximum speed is not the primary determinant of hunting success (Locomotion dynamics of hunting in wild cheetahs).

Species Variation

Speed capabilities vary within species based on age, sex, health, and individual condition. The cheetah study recorded speeds from five animals, and individual variation was observed. Similarly, the hippopotamus study sampled 169 strides from 32 hippos and found variation in stride parameters with speed (Footfall patterns and stride parameters of Common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) on land).

Readers should interpret speed records as representative measurements instead of fixed species characteristics. The fastest recorded speed for an individual animal does not define the speed capability of the entire species.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the fastest animal in the world?

The answer depends on the category being measured. The cheetah is the fastest land animal with a recorded speed of 25.9 m/s during wild hunting runs in Botswana (Locomotion dynamics of hunting in wild cheetahs). The peregrine falcon is widely recognized as the fastest bird during diving flight, and the sailfish is cited as one of the fastest fish. Direct comparison across environments is complicated by different measurement methods and physical conditions.

What is the fastest land animal?

The cheetah is the fastest land animal. A 2013 study using GPS and inertial measurement collars on wild cheetahs in Botswana recorded a top speed of 25.9 m/s, equivalent to 93 km/h or 58 mph (Locomotion dynamics of hunting in wild cheetahs). The study also found that most cheetah hunts involved only moderate speeds, with acceleration and turning ability being important for hunting success.

What is the fastest bird?

The peregrine falcon is widely recognized as the fastest bird during its hunting dive. The biomechanical basis for this speed includes the ability to change wing shape and area rapidly through a morphing wing mechanism (Quantitative analysis of the morphing wing mechanism of raptors: Analysis methods, folding motions, and bionic design of Falco Peregrinus). The approved sources for this article do not provide a specific measured dive speed for the peregrine falcon.

How does the cheetah achieve its speed?

The cheetah achieves high speed through a combination of adaptations. Its galloping shows small vertical movement of the center of mass, small whole-body pitching movement, and large spine bending movement (Three Characteristics of Cheetah Galloping Improve Running Performance Through Spinal Movement: A Modeling Study). The forelimb contains large digital flexors and extensors that may aid traction, and the inner ear has specialized features that support head and gaze stability during high-speed pursuit (Recent inner ear specialization for high-speed hunting in cheetahs).

Why are the fastest runners of intermediate size?

The fastest land animals are of intermediate size because of scaling of mechanical demands and muscle supply. Very large animals are constrained by the mechanical work demand each step, while very small animals are limited by the high power demands during brief stance periods (Why are the fastest runners of intermediate size? Contrasting scaling of mechanical demands and muscle supply of work and power). The cheetah's body size places it in the optimal range where these constraints are balanced.

How do researchers measure animal speed in the wild?

Researchers measure animal speed using tracking collars that combine GPS and inertial measurement units. The cheetah study used this approach to capture locomotor dynamics during 367 predominantly hunting runs of five wild cheetahs in Botswana (Locomotion dynamics of hunting in wild cheetahs). This method allows measurement of speed, acceleration, and deceleration in free-ranging animals without interfering with natural behavior.

What is the fastest fish in the ocean?

The sailfish is widely cited as one of the fastest fish in the ocean, with a streamlined body shape adapted for high-speed swimming. Its dart-like shape during high-speed swimming is enhanced by its lack of scales, which minimizes friction with water (Bio-Inspired Design and Additive Manufacturing Techniques for Aquatic Robot Development Based on the Locomotion of the Istiophorus (Sailfish)). The approved sources for this article do not provide a specific measured swimming speed for the sailfish.

How does the vestibular system support fast movement?

The vestibular system drives some of the fastest reflex pathways in the nervous system

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References and Further Reading

• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
• Evidence That Ultrafast Nonquantal Transmission Underlies Synchronized Vestibular Action Potential Generation.. The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 2023.
• Locomotion dynamics of hunting in wild cheetahs.. Nature, 2013.
• Three Characteristics of Cheetah Galloping Improve Running Performance Through Spinal Movement: A Modeling Study.. Frontiers in bioengineering and biotechnology, 2022.
• Why are the fastest runners of intermediate size? Contrasting scaling of mechanical demands and muscle supply of work and power.. Biology letters, 2020.
• Footfall patterns and stride parameters of Common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) on land.. PeerJ, 2024.
• Cheetahs, Acinonyx jubatus, balance turn capacity with pace when chasing prey.. Biology letters, 2013.
• Functional anatomy of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) forelimb.. Journal of anatomy, 2011.
• Recent inner ear specialization for high-speed hunting in cheetahs.. Scientific reports, 2018.
• Descriptive histological analysis of the upper, lower, and third eyelids and the conjunctiva-associated lymphoid tissue in birds of prey.. 2025.
• The incomparable fascination of comparative physiology: 40 years with animals in the field and laboratory.. 2024.
• High-Tech Training for Birds of Prey.. 2021.
• Quantitative analysis of the morphing wing mechanism of raptors: Analysis methods, folding motions, and bionic design of Falco Peregrinus.. 2024.
• High-Performance Speed Control of BLDC Motor Drives Using a PI Sailfish Optimization Algorithm. Energies, 2026.
• Optimization of Multi-Objective Problems for Sailfish-Shaped Airfoils Based on the Multi-Island Genetic Algorithm. Machines, 2025.
• Symbiotic cleaning relationship between a sailfish (Istiophorus platypterus) and remoras (Remora osteochir). Journal of ethology, 2025.
• Multi-Strategy Sailfish Optimizer: Novel Algorithm with Dynamic Sardine Population and Improved Search Technique for Efficient Robot Path Planning. Machines, 2025.
• Optimal extreme learning machine for diagnosing brain tumor based on modified sailfish optimizer. Heliyon, 2024.
• Cooperative Motion Mechanism of a Bionic Sailfish Robot With High Motion Performance. IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters, 2024.
• The Sailfish Optimizer: A novel nature-inspired metaheuristic algorithm for solving constrained engineering optimization problems. Engineering applications of artificial intelligence, 2019.
• Bio-Inspired Design and Additive Manufacturing Techniques for Aquatic Robot Development Based on the Locomotion of the Istiophorus (Sailfish). 2024 8th International Symposium on Multidisciplinary Studies and Innovative Technologies (ISMSIT), 2024.
• Mechanism analysis of cheetah's high-speed locomotion based on digital reconstruction. Biomimetic Intelligence and Robotics, 2022.
• How lovebirds maneuver rapidly using super-fast head saccades and image feature stabilization. Plos One, 2015.
• Summers over land and ocean are becoming longer, transitioning faster, and accumulating more heat. Environmental Research Letters, 2026.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.