Pronghorn Antelope Migration: North America's Longest Land Migration

Pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana) undertake some of the longest terrestrial migrations in North America, with documented movements reaching up to 399 kilometers during extreme weather events in Wyoming's Red Desert. These migrations are not simply seasonal movements between summer and winter ranges. They are complex behavioral strategies that support population persistence and ecosystem functioning, yet they face increasing disruption from fences, highways, energy development, and climate variability. This article examines the longest pronghorn migration corridors in Wyoming and Montana, the specific challenges these corridors face, and the conservation efforts designed to maintain connectivity across the landscape.

At a Glance: Key Pronghorn Migration Corridors and Conservation Status

The following table summarizes major pronghorn migration corridors in the American West, their documented characteristics, and the primary threats they face based on peer-reviewed research.

The Biological Basis of Pronghorn Migration

Why Pronghorn Migrate

Migration is a critical behavioral strategy necessary for population persistence and ecosystem functioning. For pronghorn, migration allows access to seasonal forage resources, reduces competition, and enables escape from severe weather conditions. The species evolved in North America and developed digestive and temperature regulation adaptations in response to highly seasonal climates beginning about 34 million years ago, with glaciations alternating every 41,000 to 100,000 years.

Pronghorn differ from bovids, cervids, and other ruminants as the only surviving member of the Antilocapridae family. They are the second fastest land animal but can sustain high speeds for much longer than cheetahs. These physiological adaptations support their wide-ranging movement patterns across deserts and grasslands.

Migration as a Behavioral Strategy

Research on pronghorn migration distinguishes between different movement phases. During migration, animals make directionally persistent movements toward seasonal ranges. On winter ranges, by contrast, animals make more localized and tortuous movements while foraging. These seasonal differences in movement behavior affect how pronghorn respond to human-induced rapid environmental change.

During migration, pronghorn tolerate low levels of disturbance but avoid areas once a disturbance threshold is surpassed. Research from western Wyoming natural gas fields documented disturbance thresholds for pronghorn ranging from 1% to 9.25% surface disturbance during migration. On winter range, however, pronghorn generally avoided all levels of human disturbance. This seasonal difference means that management strategies must account for the specific movement context when evaluating potential impacts.

Documented Migration Corridors in Wyoming

The Red Desert to Grand Teton Corridor

The Red Desert region of Wyoming supports one of the most significant pronghorn migration systems in North America. GPS collar studies documented pronghorn undertaking extraordinary long-distance movements of up to 399 kilometers to escape a once-in-two-decades extreme snowstorm. This corridor demonstrates the critical importance of landscape connectivity for pronghorn survival.

During the extreme snowstorm event, high fence density and two major highways in the region exposed pronghorn to novel barriers that delayed movement, restricted habitat access, and ultimately hindered their ability to escape extreme snow accumulation. The synergistic effects of movement barriers and extreme weather increased mortality rates by 3.7-fold, with over 50% of GPS-monitored pronghorn perishing during the event.

This case study highlights that even in seemingly underdeveloped landscapes, linear features can create substantial barriers. The findings underscore the critical need to study escape movements and prioritize connectivity planning to curtail mass mortality events and ensure population persistence.

South-Central Wyoming Wind Energy Areas

South-central Wyoming contains multiple wind-energy facilities in various stages of development and operation. Research monitoring GPS-collared female pronghorn from 2010 to 2012 and 2018 to 2020 collected 286 migration sequences from 117 individuals, including 121 spring migrations, 123 fall migrations, and 42 facultative winter migrations.

While individuals continued to migrate through wind-energy facilities, pronghorn made important behavioral adjustments relative to turbines during migration. These adjustments included avoiding turbines when selecting stopover sites in spring and winter, selecting areas farther from turbines at a small scale in spring and winter, moving more quickly near turbines in spring, and reducing fidelity to migration routes relative to wind turbines under construction in both spring and fall.

The magnitude of these behavioral adjustments was substantial. An increase in distance to turbine from 0 to 1 kilometer translated to a 33% increase in the relative probability of selection for stopover sites in spring and a 300% increase in winter. These findings demonstrate that wind energy development can alter migration behavior even when pronghorn continue to use the broader landscape.

Wyoming Population Genetics and Connectivity

Despite concerns about landscape barriers, genetic research in Wyoming found no evidence of genetic subdivision and minimal evidence of isolation by distance across a range spanning hundreds of kilometers, multiple mountain ranges, and three interstate highways. Researchers genotyped 4,949 genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphisms and 11 microsatellites from 398 individuals throughout Wyoming.

A rare variant analysis using putatively recent mutations found no genetic division between pronghorn on either side of a major highway corridor. Although highways impede daily and seasonal movements, they do not appear to impede gene flow in the core of the species' range. However, researchers recommend periodic monitoring of genetic structure and diversity as part of management strategies to identify changes in connectivity over time.

Migration Corridors in Montana and the Northern Sagebrush Steppe

Transboundary Northern Sagebrush Steppe

The Northern Sagebrush Steppe spans the international border region and supports pronghorn populations that migrate across jurisdictional boundaries. Multi-scale habitat assessment research examined pronghorn habitat selection during seasonal migration across this region using a hierarchical habitat selection framework.

During spring migration, pronghorn selected for native grasslands, areas of high forage productivity measured by NDVI, and avoided human activity including roads and oil and natural gas wells. During fall migration, pronghorn selected for native grasslands and larger streams and rivers while avoiding roads.

The research detected avoidance of paved roads, unpaved roads, and wells at broad spatial scales but no response to these features at fine scales. This means migratory pronghorn responded more strongly to anthropogenic features when selecting a broad neighborhood through which to migrate than when selecting individual steps along their migratory pathway. The scales of migratory route selection are hierarchically nested within each other from broader second-order to finer third-order scales.

Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem

The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem supports long-distance pronghorn migrations that have been studied using Brownian bridge movement models applied to high-frequency location data. This approach allowed researchers to delineate stopover sites associated with anthropogenic development and assess threats from fences and highways.

Migrating pronghorn avoided dense developments of natural gas fields. Highways with relatively high volumes of traffic and woven-wire sheep fence acted as complete barriers to movement. At crossings with known migration bottlenecks, use of high-quality forage and shrub habitat by pronghorn as they approached the highway was lower than expected based on availability of those resources. In contrast, pronghorn consistently utilized high-quality forage close to the highway at crossings with no known migration bottlenecks.

These findings demonstrate the importance of minimizing development in migration corridors and mitigating existing pressure on migratory animals by removing barriers, reducing the development footprint, or installing crossing structures.

Linear Features as Migration Barriers

Fences

Fences represent one of the most pervasive barriers to pronghorn movement across the American West. Research from southern Alberta, Canada assessed how the spatial configuration of fences and roads affects the movement and distribution of a partially migratory pronghorn population using data from 55 collared pronghorn within a step-selection function framework.

The study examined four linear features: pasture fences, roads not fenced, roads fenced on one side, and roads fenced on both sides. Regression coefficients were negative for all linear features, indicating that individuals were less likely to choose steps that crossed linear features. For the proximity effect, migrant animals avoided all linear features except roads fenced on both sides, where they selected areas closer to this feature.

Woven-wire sheep fence acted as a complete barrier to pronghorn migration in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. This fence type is particularly problematic because pronghorn cannot crawl under it and typically cannot jump over it, unlike the more permeable barbed wire fences commonly used for cattle management.

Highways

Highways with relatively high volumes of traffic act as complete barriers to pronghorn migration. Research in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem documented that at crossings with known migration bottlenecks, pronghorn used high-quality forage and shrub habitat less than expected based on availability as they approached the highway.

In the Red Desert of Wyoming, two major highways exposed pronghorn to novel barriers that delayed movement and restricted habitat access during an extreme snowstorm event. The combination of fence density and highway barriers increased mortality rates by 3.7-fold during this event.

Despite these movement barriers, genetic research in Wyoming found no evidence that highways impede gene flow in the core of the species' range. This suggests that while highways slow or block individual movements, the overall population connectivity remains intact, possibly through occasional crossings or through gene flow from adjacent populations.

Energy Development

Energy development creates multiple types of disturbance for migrating pronghorn. Natural gas development in western Wyoming created surface disturbance from well pads and roads that pronghorn avoided during migration once a threshold was surpassed. Research documented disturbance thresholds for pronghorn ranging from 1% to 9.25% surface disturbance during migration.

Wind energy development in south-central Wyoming altered pronghorn migration behavior at multiple scales. Pronghorn avoided turbines when selecting stopover sites, moved more quickly near turbines in spring, and reduced fidelity to migration routes relative to turbines under construction. Winter resource selection research found that pronghorn avoided wind turbines within their winter home ranges after development, with this relationship most evident during the most severe winter of the study.

Large-scale gold mining in the Great Basin created high-disturbance areas including open pits, heap leach fields, rock disposal areas, and a tram that pronghorn strongly avoided. Pronghorn selected areas near roads, although selection was strongest about 2 kilometers away. The Great Basin is a mineral-rich area that continues to be exploited for natural resources, and sagebrush-dependent species including pronghorn are directly affected by this landscape transformation.

Climate Variability and Migration

Extreme Weather Events

Climate is an important driver of ungulate life histories, population dynamics, and migratory behaviors. Climate conditions can directly impact ungulates via changes in the costs of thermoregulation and locomotion, or indirectly via changes in habitat and forage availability, predation, and species interactions.

The 2025 case study from the Red Desert, Wyoming documented pronghorn undertaking extraordinary long-distance movements of up to 399 kilometers to escape a once-in-two-decades extreme snowstorm. This event demonstrated that extreme weather may require animals to rapidly move to escape, and that landscape fragmentation can limit their ability to do so.

The synergistic effects of movement barriers and extreme weather increased mortality rates by 3.7-fold such that over 50% of GPS-monitored pronghorn perished. This mass mortality event highlights the critical need to study escape movements and prioritize connectivity planning to curtail such events.

Climate Suitability Projections

Climate suitability projections for pronghorn depend heavily on model assumptions. Research in California combined two climate-based distribution models with three finer-scale suitability models to identify habitat for pronghorn recovery now and into the future.

Under the migration hypothesis, pronghorn were expected to be limited climatically by extreme cold in winter and extreme heat in summer. Under this hypothesis, the model predicted that there will be no suitable climate in California in the future. Under the niche reduction hypothesis, by contrast, suitable climate will expand.

Habitat suitability also depended on the methods used, but areas of consensus among all three models exist in large patches throughout the state. Identifying habitat for a species which has undergone extreme range collapse and which has very fine scale habitat needs presents novel challenges for spatial ecologists.

Conservation Efforts and Management Strategies

Identifying Migration Impediments

Conservation efforts begin with identifying existing migration impediments. Researchers applied Brownian bridge movement models to high-frequency locations of pronghorn in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem to delineate stopover sites associated with anthropogenic development. Resource utilization functions were then used to assess threats to long-distance migration due to fences and highways.

This approach identified that migrating pronghorn avoided dense developments of natural gas fields, and that highways with relatively high volumes of traffic and woven-wire sheep fence acted as complete barriers. The findings demonstrate the importance of minimizing development in migration corridors and mitigating existing pressure on migratory animals by removing barriers, reducing the development footprint, or installing crossing structures.

Multi-Scale Habitat Assessment

Multi-scale habitat assessment provides a framework for understanding how pronghorn select migration routes at different spatial scales. Research in the transboundary Northern Sagebrush Steppe used a hierarchical habitat selection framework to assess natural and anthropogenic features at both broad migratory neighborhood and fine migratory pathway scales.

The scale-integrated step selection function map produced from this research proved effective in predicting migration route habitat. This approach can be used to identify priority areas for conservation and to evaluate the potential impacts of proposed developments on migration connectivity.

Genetic Monitoring

Genetic monitoring provides a complementary tool for assessing connectivity. Research in Wyoming genotyped 4,949 genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphisms and 11 microsatellites from 398 individuals and found no evidence of genetic subdivision despite highways and mountain ranges.

For the endangered Peninsular pronghorn subspecies, genetic monitoring documented a decline in heterozygosity and an increase in the proportion of inbred individuals over time from 2009 to 2021. These trends were partially mitigated by a genetically informed breeding management attempt implemented in 2018. The research reconstructed two sequential population declines putatively linked to desertification of the Baja California peninsula around 6,000 years ago and hunting and habitat loss around 500 years ago.

Periodic monitoring of genetic structure and diversity is recommended as part of management strategies to identify changes in connectivity over time.

Practical Assessment Steps for Land Managers

Land managers, ranchers, and conservation practitioners can apply the following assessment steps to evaluate pronghorn migration corridors on their lands.

Step 1: Document Current Fence Conditions

Walk or drive all fence lines and record fence type, condition, and wildlife permeability. Identify woven-wire sheep fence segments, which act as complete barriers to pronghorn movement. Record the location of each fence segment using GPS coordinates and photograph fence condition for documentation.

Step 2: Identify Known Crossing Locations

Work with local wildlife agencies to identify known pronghorn crossing locations on your property. Observe fence lines during spring and fall migration periods to document where pronghorn approach fences and where they successfully cross. Record crossing locations, dates, and the number of animals observed.

Step 3: Assess Road and Highway Impacts

Identify roads and highways that intersect potential migration corridors. Record traffic volumes where data are available and note fence configurations along road corridors. Document whether roads are unfenced, fenced on one side, or fenced on both sides, as these configurations have different effects on pronghorn movement.

Step 4: Evaluate Energy Development Footprints

If energy development exists or is proposed on your property, map the location of well pads, roads, turbines, and other infrastructure relative to known migration routes. Record the percentage of surface disturbance within migration corridors and compare to documented disturbance thresholds for pronghorn ranging from 1% to 9.25% during migration.

Step 5: Coordinate With Wildlife Agencies

Share your observations with state wildlife agencies and conservation organizations working on corridor mapping. Participate in fence modification projects and crossing structure installations. Maintain records of all management actions and their outcomes for adaptive management.

Records and Measurements

Maintaining consistent records is essential for evaluating the effectiveness of conservation actions. The following measurements provide useful data for adaptive management.

Fence Permeability Records

Record fence type, height, number of wires, and bottom wire height for each fence segment. Document any modifications made to improve wildlife passage, including dates and costs. Monitor fence lines after modification to document pronghorn crossing success.

Migration Timing Records

Record the timing of pronghorn migration through your property each spring and fall. Note the first and last observations of migrating animals, the number of animals observed, and the duration of migration through your property. Compare timing across years to identify changes in migration patterns.

Barrier Crossing Records

Document pronghorn behavior at fence lines and roads, including the number of animals that approach barriers, the number that successfully cross, and the time required to cross. Record any mortality events involving fences or vehicles, including dates, locations, and contributing factors.

Habitat Condition Records

Record vegetation condition along migration corridors, including grass height, shrub cover, and evidence of forage use. Document snow depth during winter months and note any extreme weather events that may affect migration timing or success.

Common Failure Patterns in Corridor Management

Incomplete Barrier Removal

Partial fence modification often fails to restore connectivity. Pronghorn may approach a modified fence segment but be unable to find the opening, particularly if the modification is small relative to the width of the migration corridor. Effective fence modification requires removing or modifying fence along the full width of the corridor at known crossing locations.

Ignoring Seasonal Movement Differences

Management actions that address only one season may fail to protect year-round connectivity. Pronghorn respond differently to disturbance during migration than on winter range. During migration, pronghorn tolerate low levels of disturbance but avoid areas once a threshold is surpassed. On winter range, pronghorn generally avoid all levels of human disturbance. Management strategies must account for these seasonal differences.

Focusing on Single Barriers

Addressing one barrier while ignoring others may not restore connectivity. The Red Desert snowstorm case study demonstrated that high fence density and two major highways acted together to delay movement and increase mortality. Removing fences while leaving highway barriers in place may not provide sufficient connectivity for pronghorn to escape extreme weather events.

Neglecting Stopover Habitat

Protecting migration corridors requires protecting stopover sites where pronghorn rest and forage during migration. Wind energy research documented that pronghorn avoided turbines when selecting stopover sites in spring and winter. An increase in distance to turbine from 0 to 1 kilometer translated to a 33% increase in the relative probability of selection for stopover sites in spring and a 300% increase in winter. Stopover habitat protection is as important as corridor protection.

Limitations of Current Knowledge

Geographic Gaps in Research

Research on pronghorn migration has concentrated in Wyoming, Montana, and southern Alberta. Less is known about migration patterns in other parts of the species' range, including the Great Basin, the southern United States, and Mexico. The Peninsular pronghorn subspecies in Baja California is almost entirely held in captivity, and research on wild populations is limited.

Temporal Limitations

Most migration research has been conducted over relatively short time periods. Long-term studies are necessary to understand how pronghorn migration responds to climate variability, development, and management actions over time. The wind energy research in south-central Wyoming collected data from 2010 to 2012 and 2018 to 2020, providing one of the longer-term datasets available.

Uncertainty in Climate Projections

Climate suitability projections for pronghorn depend heavily on model assumptions. Under the migration hypothesis, models predicted no suitable climate in California in the future. Under the niche reduction hypothesis, suitable climate will expand. This uncertainty complicates conservation planning for the species.

Welfare and Safety Context

Wildlife Welfare Considerations

Migration barriers create welfare concerns for pronghorn beyond population-level effects. Fences can cause injury or death when pronghorn attempt to cross. Highways create collision risks for both animals and motorists. Energy development can displace pronghorn from high-quality habitat, forcing them into suboptimal areas.

The mass mortality event in the Red Desert, where over 50% of GPS-monitored pronghorn perished during an extreme snowstorm, demonstrates the severe welfare consequences of movement barriers combined with extreme weather. Animals that could not escape the snowstorm experienced prolonged suffering before death.

Human Safety Considerations

Pronghorn-vehicle collisions pose safety risks to motorists, particularly on highways that intersect migration corridors. Identifying migration bottlenecks and installing crossing structures can reduce collision risk while restoring connectivity. Fence modifications that improve pronghorn passage can also reduce the likelihood of pronghorn entering roadways at unsafe locations.

Regulatory Context

In the United States, the subspecies A. americana sonoriensis is protected under the Endangered Species Act. In Mexico, all pronghorn are protected under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species Appendix I, and the Peninsular pronghorn subspecies is protected in Mexico. Land managers should consult with wildlife agencies to understand applicable regulations before undertaking management actions.

Professional Escalation Criteria

Land managers should seek professional assistance from wildlife biologists or agency personnel under the following circumstances.

Mass Mortality Events

If you observe multiple pronghorn deaths associated with fences, roads, or extreme weather, contact your state wildlife agency immediately. Document the location, number of animals affected, and likely contributing factors. Mass mortality events may indicate that movement barriers are exceeding critical thresholds.

Barrier-Related Injuries

If you observe pronghorn injured or entangled in fences, document the location and fence type and contact the landowner or managing agency. Woven-wire sheep fence is particularly hazardous to pronghorn and should be prioritized for modification.

Proposed Development in Corridors

If energy development, road construction, or other development is proposed in or near known migration corridors, contact wildlife agencies to request corridor mapping and impact assessment. Research demonstrates that development can alter migration behavior even when pronghorn continue to use the broader landscape.

Extreme Weather Events

If extreme weather events are forecast during migration periods, monitor pronghorn movements and be prepared to document any unusual movements or mortality. The Red Desert case study demonstrated that extreme snowstorms can trigger extraordinary long-distance movements and mass mortality when barriers impede escape.

Frequently Asked Questions

How long is the pronghorn migration in Wyoming?

Pronghorn in Wyoming undertake some of the longest terrestrial migrations in North America. GPS collar studies documented movements up to 399 kilometers during an extreme snowstorm in the Red Desert. Regular seasonal migrations between summer and winter ranges typically cover shorter distances but still represent some of the longest land migrations on the continent.

What are the main barriers to pronghorn migration?

The main barriers are fences, highways, and energy development. Woven-wire sheep fence acts as a complete barrier to pronghorn movement. Highways with high traffic volumes also act as complete barriers. Natural gas development, wind energy facilities, and gold mining create disturbance that pronghorn avoid during migration and on winter range.

How do fences affect pronghorn migration?

Fences affect pronghorn migration by blocking movement and restricting habitat access. Research in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem found that woven-wire sheep fence acted as a complete barrier to migration. In southern Alberta, pronghorn were less likely to choose steps that crossed any type of linear feature including pasture fences. During an extreme snowstorm in the Red Desert, high fence density delayed movement and contributed to a 3.7-fold increase in mortality.

How does wind energy development affect pronghorn migration?

Wind energy development alters pronghorn migration behavior at multiple scales. Pronghorn avoid turbines when selecting stopover sites in spring and winter, select areas farther from turbines at a small scale, move more quickly near turbines in spring, and reduce fidelity to migration routes relative to turbines under construction. An increase in distance to turbine from 0 to 1 kilometer translated to a 33% increase in the relative probability of selection for stopover sites in spring and a 300% increase in winter.

Do highways prevent pronghorn gene flow?

Genetic research in Wyoming found no evidence that highways impede gene flow in the core of the species' range. Researchers genotyped 4,949 genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphisms and 11 microsatellites from 398 individuals and found no genetic subdivision despite three interstate highways. However, highways do impede daily and seasonal movements, and periodic genetic monitoring is recommended to identify changes in connectivity.

What is the conservation status of pronghorn migration corridors?

Pronghorn migration corridors face ongoing threats from development, fencing, and climate variability. Conservation efforts include identifying migration impediments using Brownian bridge movement models, conducting multi-scale habitat assessments, and implementing fence modification and crossing structure projects. The mass mortality event in the Red Desert highlighted the critical need to prioritize connectivity planning.

How does climate change affect pronghorn migration?

Climate variability affects pronghorn migration through changes in forage availability, snow depth, and extreme weather events. The Red Desert snowstorm case study demonstrated that extreme weather can trigger extraordinary long-distance movements and mass mortality when barriers impede escape. Climate suitability projections for pronghorn depend heavily on model assumptions, with some models predicting no suitable climate in California in the future.

What can landowners do to support pronghorn migration?

Landowners can document fence conditions and identify known crossing locations, modify or remove woven-wire sheep fence in migration corridors, coordinate with wildlife agencies on corridor mapping, and participate in fence modification and crossing structure projects. Maintaining records of migration timing, barrier crossings, and habitat conditions supports adaptive management.

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References and Further Reading

• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
• Wind-energy development alters pronghorn migration at multiple scales.. Ecology and evolution, 2023.
• Multi-scale habitat assessment of pronghorn migration routes.. PloS one, 2020.
• Climatically robust multiscale species distribution models to support pronghorn recovery in California.. Ecology and evolution, 2024.
• Responses to natural gas development differ by season for two migratory ungulates.. Ecological applications : a publication of the Ecological Society of America, 2022.
• Pronghorn population genomics show connectivity in the core of their range.. Journal of mammalogy, 2020.
• Effects of large-scale gold mining on habitat use and selection by American pronghorn.. The Science of the total environment, 2024.
• Identifying impediments to long-distance mammal migrations.. Conservation biology : the journal of the Society for Conservation Biology, 2015.
• Pronghorn movements and mortality during extreme weather highlight the critical importance of connectivity.. Current biology : CB, 2025.
• Existing evidence on the effects of climate variability and climate change on ungulates in North America: a systematic map.. 2024.
• Is it the road or the fence? Influence of linear anthropogenic features on the movement and distribution of a partially migratory ungulate.. 2022.
• Effect of fencing on regional ecological networks in the northern Tibetan Plateau.. 2023.
• Longest terrestrial migrations and movements around the world.. 2019.
• Stakeholder participation, indicators, assessment, and decision-making: applying adaptive management at the watershed scale.. 2022.
• Post-whaling shift in mating tactics in male humpback whales.. 2023.
• Protecting migration corridors: challenges and optimism for Mongolian saiga.. 2008.
• Peninsular Pronghorn Conservation: Too Many Paradigms, too few indicators. 2014.
• Conservation Genetics and Epigenetics of Pronghorn, Antilocapra americana. 2016.
• Declining pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) population productivity caused by woody encroachment and oil and gas development. Global Ecology and Conservation, 2024.
• The genetic consequences of captive breeding, environmental change and human exploitation in the endangered peninsular pronghorn. Scientific Reports, 2022.
• Pronghorn Winter Resource Selection before and after Wind Energy Development in South-Central Wyoming☆. Rangeland Ecology & Management, 2020.
• Partial migration and philopatry of Yellowstone pronghorn. Biological Conservation, 2007.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.