Peregrine Falcon Habitat: From Cliffs to Skyscrapers

The peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) occupies a wider range of nesting environments than almost any other raptor, from remote Arctic cliffs to the ledges of occupied office towers. This article explains the physical and ecological features that make a site suitable for peregrine falcons, how the species has shifted from natural cliff faces to human-built structures, and how to assess a potential habitat using observable field criteria. The content is written for students, researchers, life-science professionals, and informed general readers who need a practical framework for understanding peregrine falcon habitat selection and conservation.

The Global Distribution of Peregrine Falcons

Peregrine falcons are among the most widely distributed raptors in the world, with habitats ranging from tundra, mountains, and some deserts to tropical zones, coastal areas, and urban environments. This broad distribution reflects the species' adaptability to different climatic conditions and prey availability instead of a preference for any single landscape type. A global distribution model built from open-access biodiversity data confirms that peregrine falcons occur across all major continents except Antarctica, with the highest densities in regions that combine open hunting space with vertical nesting structures.

The species' range expansion in recent decades is closely tied to conservation action. In North America, the peregrine falcon was delisted from endangered status in 1994 for the Arctic subspecies Falco peregrinus tundrius and in 1999 for the subspecies Falco peregrinus anatum. Genetic monitoring of migratory populations at Padre Island, Texas, between 1985 and 2007 found no significant changes in genetic diversity or population differentiation over time, indicating a stable and self-sustaining population. In Norway, the breeding population was nearly exterminated by the early 1970s, but long-term monitoring from 1976 to the present shows that numbers have returned to historical pre-DDT levels, with a range expansion from coastal habitats into fjords and inland valleys.

The Madagascar peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus radama) illustrates the variation within the species complex. This resident subspecies is distributed across Madagascar, Mayotte, and the Comoros Islands. Species distribution modeling shows its core range extends across the central upland plateau of Madagascar, with a patchier distribution in coastal and low-elevation areas. The model indicates the subspecies prefers high elevation, aridity, high vegetation heterogeneity, and more than 95 percent herbaceous land cover, while avoiding areas with more than 30 percent cultivated land and more than 10 percent mosaic forest. The estimated habitat could support between 150 and 300 pairs, leading to a recommendation that the subspecies be classified as Vulnerable under International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List guidelines.

Natural Nesting Habitats: Cliffs and Rock Faces

Cliff Structure and Placement

The ancestral nesting habitat of the peregrine falcon is the vertical cliff face. Peregrines do not build substantial nests. They scrape a shallow depression in existing ledges, crevices, or abandoned nests of other large birds. The critical features of a suitable cliff nest site include a vertical or near-vertical rock face, a ledge wide enough to hold eggs and chicks, overhead protection from rain and sun, and a clear approach path for hunting flights.

In the Balkan Mountain Range of Bulgaria, researchers documented the breeding habitat characteristics of peregrine falcons alongside golden eagles and long-legged buzzards. The study recorded the specific structural features of nest sites, including cliff height, ledge dimensions, and aspect. These measurements provide a baseline for assessing whether a rock face can support a breeding pair.

Coastal Versus Inland Cliffs

Peregrine falcons use both coastal and inland cliffs, but the two habitat types differ in prey availability and population dynamics. In Norway, peregrine falcons first reestablished at breeding sites in coastal habitats after the DDT ban, where they remained at stable low numbers until the early 1990s. Starting around 2000, numbers increased steadily, and the population expanded into fjords and inland valleys. The study found that once a territory was colonized, the probability that the territory remained occupied was high, exceeding 0.958. However, productivity per nest decreased over time at coastal sites, which researchers attributed to declining numbers of colonial seabirds and other prey species.

In Gipuzkoa, Spain, a 2017 survey of 35 peregrine falcon territories found nests on inland cliffs (48.6 percent), coastal cliffs (25.7 percent), quarries (22.9 percent), and buildings (2.9 percent). The population remained stable over two decades, with one of the highest densities in Spain. Reproductive parameters in 2017 included a productivity of 1.72 chicks per territory across all 35 territories and a flight rate of 2.50 chicks per territory among the 24 territories that produced at least one chick.

Quarries as Substitute Cliffs

Active and abandoned quarries provide artificial cliff faces that peregrine falcons readily adopt. The Gipuzkoa survey documented 22.9 percent of nests in quarries, making them the second most common nesting substrate after inland cliffs. Quarries offer vertical rock faces with ledges and crevices similar to natural cliffs, and they often occur in landscapes where natural cliffs are scarce. For land managers, maintaining quarry faces during and after extraction operations can support local peregrine populations.

Urban Habitats: Skyscrapers and Bridges

Why Peregrines Accept Buildings

Peregrine falcons have demonstrated a remarkable ability to transfer their cliff-nesting behavior to human-built structures. Skyscrapers, bridges, cathedral towers, and industrial chimneys offer the same features that peregrines seek in natural cliffs: height, vertical surfaces, ledges, and protection from ground predators. The shift to urban nesting began in the mid-20th century and accelerated as populations recovered from the DDT crisis.

The Gipuzkoa survey recorded 2.9 percent of nests on buildings, a small but significant proportion. In other regions, particularly North America and Europe, urban nesting is more common. The presence of peregrine falcons in cities is not limited to nesting. Urban areas provide abundant prey in the form of feral pigeons, starlings, and other birds adapted to human environments.

Habitat Suitability in Urban Environments

A suitable urban nest site must meet the same criteria as a natural cliff site. The building or bridge must be tall enough to provide a clear hunting approach, the ledge must be protected from wind and rain, and the surrounding area must support sufficient prey. Peregrines in urban environments often select ledges on the upper floors of buildings, under bridge decks, or on window sills of abandoned structures.

The presence of peregrine falcons in cities creates both opportunities and challenges for wildlife managers. Nest boxes installed on buildings and bridges have supported population recovery in many areas. However, urban nesting also exposes peregrines to contaminants and collisions. A study of peregrine falcon eggs from Germany detected persistent organic pollutants and contaminants of emerging concern, with p,p'-DDE, PCB 153, PCB 138, PFOS, and methylparaben as the most frequently detected compounds. Raptors are ideal indicators for biomonitoring because they occupy the highest trophic position in food webs and have relatively long life expectancy.

Habitat Suitability Checklist

The following checklist provides a practical framework for assessing whether a site can support breeding peregrine falcons. Each criterion is based on documented habitat characteristics from field studies.

Territory Size and Home Range

Spatial Requirements

Peregrine falcons defend a nesting territory but hunt over a much larger home range. The size of the home range varies with prey density, landscape structure, and the availability of alternative hunting areas. A study of peregrine falcons on the Cape Peninsula, South Africa, measured home range size and habitat requirements for the species in that region. The study documented the spatial extent of hunting movements and the habitat features that peregrines selected within their home ranges.

In general, peregrine falcons require a larger hunting area when prey is scarce and a smaller area when prey is abundant. Coastal populations may hunt over intertidal zones and offshore islands, while inland populations hunt over open valleys, wetlands, and agricultural land. Urban peregrines often have smaller home ranges because pigeon populations provide a concentrated food source.

Density-Dependent Territory Dynamics

The Norwegian monitoring study provides detailed data on territory dynamics during population recovery. During the early stages of recovery, the transitional probabilities of becoming or remaining a breeding territory were high, with values above 0.40 for the transition from non-breeding to breeding and above 0.65 for remaining a breeding territory. These probabilities declined over time, especially in coastal habitats, consistent with density-dependent regulation. As territories filled, the likelihood of new territories becoming occupied decreased, and productivity at established sites declined.

For habitat managers, this means that the number of suitable nest sites in an area sets an upper limit on the breeding population. Once all suitable sites are occupied, additional pairs cannot establish territories unless new sites become available or existing pairs fail.

Prey Availability and Habitat Quality

Diet Composition

Peregrine falcons are obligate bird hunters. They capture prey in flight, using their speed and maneuverability to overtake other birds. The diet varies by region and season. In Brazil, a citizen science analysis of peregrine falcon observations found that the species preys mainly on Columbiformes (pigeons and doves) and Charadriiformes (shorebirds). The study also documented agonistic interactions with other bird species, including mobbing and kleptoparasitism.

In coastal Norway, the decline in breeding success of coastal peregrines is believed to be caused by declining numbers of colonial seabirds and other prey species. This finding highlights the direct link between prey availability and reproductive output. A habitat that lacks sufficient prey cannot support a breeding pair regardless of the quality of the nesting substrate.

Prey Delivery and Parental Roles

Research on raptor nestling diets in the Andes, while focused on the black-and-chestnut eagle, provides relevant context for understanding prey delivery patterns in large raptors. The study found that males provided more prey to nestlings than females (227 versus 99 prey items) and that females hunted heavier prey than males. The overlap in captured prey between sexes was relatively high, suggesting potential for competition. These patterns may apply to peregrine falcons, where the female is larger than the male and may take larger prey while the male delivers food more frequently during the early nesting period.

For habitat assessment, the presence of a diverse prey community is more important than the abundance of any single prey species. A habitat that supports multiple prey species provides resilience against fluctuations in any one population.

Contaminants and Habitat Quality

The Legacy of Organochlorine Pesticides

The peregrine falcon is a sentinel species for environmental contamination because of its widespread distribution, high position in the food chain, and susceptibility to pollutants. The historical application of organochlorine pesticides, particularly DDT, caused alarming population declines. DDT and its metabolite DDE caused eggshell thinning, which led to egg breakage during incubation and reproductive failure.

The Norwegian monitoring study documented the recovery process. Eggshells were relatively thin throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s but increased to almost normal levels during the last two decades. Reductions in organochlorine pollutant levels, especially DDT, appear to be the main factor explaining the population recovery. Contaminant levels in eggs have dropped sharply over the last few decades and now seem to be below critical levels.

Current Contaminant Threats

While DDT levels have declined, peregrine falcons continue to accumulate a range of environmental contaminants. A 2023 study of peregrine falcon eggs from Germany detected 58 pollutants from different chemical classes, including plant protection products, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, and medicinal products. Most detected compounds were lipophilic, although the presence of semi-polar contaminants was also noted. The study used wide-scope target analysis of 2,448 known pollutants and suspect screening of over 65,000 environmentally relevant compounds.

Platinum group elements from automobile catalysts have also been detected in peregrine falcon eggs, blood, liver, and kidney. A 2004 study found that platinum, palladium, and rhodium concentrations were higher in blood compared to feces and eggs, while liver and kidney concentrations were not elevated, indicating no bioaccumulation through metallothionein pathways. The general lack of a spatial trend was attributed to the widespread distribution of automobiles and the long-range transport of nanoparticles containing platinum group elements.

Chlorinated paraffins represent an emerging concern. A 2019 study of Scandinavian wildlife found that long-chain chlorinated paraffins were highest and predominated (55 percent of total chlorinated paraffins) in peregrine falcons, the first report where concentrations of long-chain chlorinated paraffins surpassed those of short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins in wildlife. The results indicate biomagnification of short-, medium-, and long-chain chlorinated paraffins in both marine and terrestrial food chains.

Brominated flame retardants also accumulate in peregrine falcons. A mass balance study of three female peregrine falcons from a captive breeding program found that the predominant brominated flame retardants in food were BDE-209 and DBDPE, while the predominant compounds in falcon plasma were BDE-209, BDE-153, and BDE-183. Absorption efficiencies for tetra-octabrominated BDEs ranged from 84 to 100 percent. All egg-to-plasma ratios for BDEs were greater than one, indicating efficient transfer from females to eggs. Excretion via egg-laying accounted for approximately 6.0 to 29 percent of the initial pre-breeding body burden of individual penta-decaBDE congeners.

Implications for Habitat Assessment

Contaminant exposure is a habitat quality factor that cannot be assessed by visual inspection alone. A site may appear suitable in terms of structure and prey availability but be contaminated through the local food web. Habitat assessors should review regional biomonitoring data, consult wildlife agencies, and consider the land use history of the surrounding area. Agricultural areas with heavy pesticide use, industrial zones, and urban areas with high traffic density may pose elevated contaminant risks.

Genetic Considerations in Habitat Management

Population Structure and Connectivity

Habitat management for peregrine falcons must consider genetic connectivity between populations. A genomic study of the closely related prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus) found that individuals sampled in California and Idaho represented a single panmictic population, indicating gene flow across a large geographic area. The study also provided evidence that the prairie falcon is an outgroup to the clade that includes the peregrine falcon and members of the subgenus Hierofalco.

For the peregrine falcon in North America, genetic analysis based on eleven microsatellite loci suggested limited differentiation between the tundrius and anatum subspecies, attributable to an isolation-by-distance relationship. The study recommended no delineation of these two subspecies in the northern latitudinal distribution from Alaska through Canada into Greenland.

Reintroduction Programs and Genetic Diversity

Captive breeding and reintroduction programs have played a major role in peregrine falcon recovery. A study of the Polish reintroduction program analyzed 374 specimens from six countries sampled between 2008 and 2019. The assessment of genetic variation used a panel of 10 microsatellite markers. The most probable division of the samples was into two groups, with samples from individuals delivered in 2013 most often segregated. In that year, a jump in inbreeding, expressed by the fixation index, was observed.

A related study assessed the genetic potential of the peregrine falcon population used in the Polish reintroduction program. Units were segregated into groups regardless of the country of origin, and the number of alleles and observed heterozygosity differed among breeding groups. The wild and captive populations were grouped independent of the original population.

For habitat managers, these findings underscore the importance of maintaining connectivity between populations and ensuring that reintroduction programs draw from genetically diverse sources. A habitat that is isolated from other populations may support a breeding pair but contribute little to long-term population viability.

Practical Habitat Assessment Workflow

Step 1: Identify Potential Nest Sites

Begin by mapping potential nesting structures in the study area. These include natural cliffs, quarry faces, buildings over 20 meters tall, bridges, and industrial structures. Use topographic maps, satellite imagery, and local knowledge to identify candidate sites. In urban areas, consult building managers and bridge maintenance crews about known peregrine activity.

Step 2: Evaluate Structural Suitability

Visit each candidate site and assess the structural features using the habitat suitability checklist. Record the height of the structure, the depth and width of available ledges, the presence of overhead protection, and the orientation of the nest ledge relative to sun and rain. Photograph each potential nest ledge for the record.

Step 3: Assess Prey Availability

Conduct point counts of potential prey species within a 2-kilometer radius of each candidate site. Focus on pigeons, doves, shorebirds, and other medium-sized birds. Record the number of individuals and species observed during the breeding season. Repeat counts at different times of day to account for variation in activity.

Step 4: Review Contaminant Data

Consult regional biomonitoring data for peregrine falcon eggs, blood, or prey species. If no data are available for the immediate area, review data from similar habitats in the region. Consider the land use history of the surrounding area, including agricultural, industrial, and transportation activities.

Step 5: Monitor Occupancy

If the site appears suitable, monitor it for peregrine falcon activity during the breeding season, typically from February through July in the Northern Hemisphere. Look for peregrines perching on the structure, courtship flights, and nest scrapes. Record the first observation date, the number of adults present, and any evidence of breeding behavior.

Step 6: Document and Report

Maintain a written record of all assessments, including dates, observations, and photographs. Report any confirmed breeding activity to the relevant wildlife agency. If the site is on private or managed land, coordinate with the landowner or manager to protect the nest during the breeding season.

Records and Measurements

What to Record

A standardized record for each potential or active peregrine falcon habitat should include the following data:

Monitoring Frequency

Monitor active nests at least once per week during the incubation and nestling periods. Record the number of adults present, the behavior of the adults, and any signs of disturbance. Avoid approaching the nest closely, as peregrine falcons are sensitive to human disturbance during the breeding season. Use binoculars or a spotting scope from a distance of at least 200 meters.

Common Failure Patterns in Habitat Assessment

Overlooking Prey Limitations

A common error is to assess nesting structure suitability without evaluating prey availability. A cliff or building may have perfect nesting ledges, but if the surrounding area lacks sufficient bird prey, the site will not support breeding. The Norwegian study documented declining productivity at coastal sites linked to declining seabird populations, demonstrating that prey limitation can reduce reproductive output even at established territories.

Ignoring Disturbance

Peregrine falcons abandon nests when disturbed during the early breeding season. Regular human activity near the nest, including construction, rock climbing, or industrial operations, can cause nest abandonment. Assessors should record all potential disturbance sources within 200 meters of the nest site and consider seasonal restrictions on human activity.

Misjudging Contaminant Risk

Visual assessment cannot detect contaminant contamination. A site may appear pristine while the local food web carries elevated pollutant levels. The German egg study detected a wide range of contaminants, including plant protection products and medicinal products, in peregrine falcon eggs. Habitat assessors should not assume that a remote or rural site is free from contamination, as long-range transport can carry pollutants to distant areas.

Confusing Presence with Breeding

Observing a peregrine falcon in an area does not confirm that the area is breeding habitat. Peregrines may use an area for hunting, migration stopover, or juvenile dispersal without nesting there. The Brazilian citizen science study recorded peregrine falcons in all 26 states, but Brazil is primarily a wintering area instead of a breeding area. Confirming breeding requires evidence of nest scrapes, incubation, or chicks.

Welfare and Safety Context

Human Safety Around Nest Sites

Peregrine falcons defend their nests aggressively. Adult birds may dive at intruders, including humans, during the incubation and nestling periods. While peregrine falcons rarely make contact, the strikes can cause injury, particularly to the head and eyes. Anyone working near an active nest should wear a hard hat and avoid approaching the nest directly.

Protecting Nest Sites from Disturbance

Land managers should establish a disturbance buffer around active nests during the breeding season. The size of the buffer depends on the local context, including the level of human activity and the sensitivity of the individual birds. In general, a buffer of 200 meters is a reasonable starting point, with adjustments based on observed bird behavior.

Electrical Infrastructure Risks

Electrical infrastructure poses a significant threat to peregrine falcons and other raptors. A systematic review of electrical infrastructure impacts on animal biodiversity found that the majority of reported impacts were negative, occurring primarily through barrier effects (collision) and use of linear features as a resource (electrocution). The review found that mortality from electrical infrastructure ranked lower than building collisions and predation from feral cats but remained higher than other anthropogenic energy sources. Mitigation measures focused on reducing collisions through line alterations (51 percent) and tower alterations (30 percent).

For habitat managers, this means that power lines and wind turbines near peregrine habitats require careful siting and mitigation. Retrofitting existing infrastructure with bird diverters and perch guards can reduce collision and electrocution risk.

Professional Escalation Criteria

When to Consult a Wildlife Agency

Consult a regional wildlife agency or a qualified raptor biologist when any of the following conditions are present:

• A breeding pair is confirmed at a site where human activity may cause disturbance
• A nest site is threatened by construction, demolition, or other development activity
• Productivity at an established nest site declines for two or more consecutive years
• Evidence of contaminant exposure is found in eggs, blood, or prey species
• A site is being considered for a reintroduction or translocation program

When to Seek Veterinary Assistance

Seek veterinary assistance for peregrine falcons when:

• An adult or chick is found injured or unable to fly
• A chick is found outside the nest and cannot be returned safely
• An adult shows signs of poisoning, including tremors, weakness, or inability to perch
• A nest contains eggs that appear cracked, thin-shelled, or otherwise abnormal

When to Modify Management Plans

Modify the habitat management plan when:

• Monitoring data show declining occupancy or productivity at a site
• Prey populations decline significantly within the hunting range
• New contaminant sources are identified in the surrounding area
• Human disturbance patterns change, such as new construction or increased recreation

Frequently Asked Questions

What makes a cliff suitable for peregrine falcon nesting?

A suitable cliff must have a vertical or near-vertical face with a ledge wide enough to hold eggs and chicks, overhead protection from rain and sun, and a clear approach path for hunting flights. The cliff should be tall enough to provide a vantage point for hunting and defense. In the Balkan Mountain Range of Bulgaria, researchers documented the specific structural features of peregrine falcon nest sites, including cliff height and ledge dimensions.

Why do peregrine falcons nest on skyscrapers and bridges?

Skyscrapers and bridges replicate the structural features of natural cliffs. They are tall, vertical, and have ledges that provide protection from ground predators. Urban environments also support abundant prey, particularly feral pigeons and starlings. The Gipuzkoa survey in Spain documented 2.9 percent of peregrine falcon nests on buildings, confirming that urban structures are a viable nesting substrate.

How large is a peregrine falcon territory?

Territory size varies with prey density and landscape structure. Peregrine falcons defend a small nesting territory but hunt over a much larger home range. A study on the Cape Peninsula, South Africa, measured home range size and habitat requirements for the species in that region. In general, territories are smaller where prey is abundant and larger where prey is scarce.

What prey do peregrine falcons depend on?

Peregrine falcons are obligate bird hunters. They capture prey in flight, including pigeons, doves, shorebirds, and other medium-sized birds. In Brazil, a citizen science analysis found that peregrines prey mainly on Columbiformes and Charadriiformes. In coastal Norway, declining numbers of colonial seabirds and other prey species are believed to have caused reduced breeding success at coastal sites.

How do contaminants affect peregrine falcon habitat quality?

Contaminants accumulate in peregrine falcons through their prey, affecting reproductive success and survival. Historical DDT contamination caused eggshell thinning and population declines. Current research has detected persistent organic pollutants, platinum group elements, chlorinated paraffins, and brominated flame retardants in peregrine falcon eggs and tissues. A 2024 review identified the peregrine falcon as a crucial sentinel species for assessing environmental contamination.

Can peregrine falcons be reintroduced to areas where they have disappeared?

Yes, captive breeding and reintroduction programs have supported peregrine falcon recovery in many regions. The Polish reintroduction program released captive-bred birds into the wild and monitored their genetic diversity. A study of the program found that the most probable division of samples was into two groups, with a jump in inbreeding observed in 2013. Reintroduction programs should draw from genetically diverse sources to maintain population viability.

How can I tell if a peregrine falcon is breeding at a site?

Breeding evidence includes nest scrapes, incubation behavior, and the presence of chicks. Adult peregrines defend their nests aggressively during the breeding season. Monitor the site from a distance of at least 200 meters using binoculars or a spotting scope. Record the number of adults present, their behavior, and any signs of nest activity. Confirming breeding requires repeated observation during the breeding season.

What should I do if I find an injured peregrine falcon?

Contact a licensed wildlife rehabilitator or veterinary professional immediately. Do not attempt to handle the bird unless it is in immediate danger. If you must move the bird, wear heavy gloves and place it in a ventilated cardboard box. Keep the bird in a quiet, dark place and transport it to a rehabilitation facility as soon as possible. Do not offer food or water unless instructed by a professional.

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References and Further Reading

• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
• Advanced throughput analytical strategies for the comprehensive HRMS screening of organic micropollutants in eggs of different bird species.. Chemosphere, 2023.
• Platinum group elements in raptor eggs, faeces, blood, liver and kidney.. The Science of the total environment, 2004.
• Current and future suitability of wintering grounds for a long-distance migratory raptor.. Scientific reports, 2017.
• New insights into the phylogenetics and population structure of the prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus).. BMC genomics, 2018.
• Population recovery of peregrine falcons in central Norway in the 4 decades since the DDT-ban.. Ecotoxicology (London, England), 2019.
• Accumulation of Short-, Medium-, and Long-Chain Chlorinated Paraffins in Marine and Terrestrial Animals from Scandinavia.. Environmental science & technology, 2019.
• Mass balance study of brominated flame retardants in female captive peregrine falcons.. Environmental science. Processes & impacts, 2019.
• The use of genetics for the management of a recovering population: temporal assessment of migratory peregrine falcons in North America.. PloS one, 2010.
• Captive breeding of &lt,i&gt,Falco&lt,/i&gt, sp. (Lesser Kestrel, Common Kestrel, Red-footed Falcon) with permanent disabilities in Bulgaria.. 2025.
• Sex affects the nestling diet of a large aerial predator of the Andes.. 2025.
• Rethinking raptors: caracaras as a model for avian cognition in the wild.. 2025.
• Evaluation of the Impact of the Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus peregrinus) Reintroduction Process on Captive-Bred Population.. 2022.
• Positive and negative impacts of electrical infrastructure on animal biodiversity: A systematic review.. 2025.
• Assessment of the Genetic Potential of the Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus peregrinus) Population Used in the Reintroduction Program in Poland.. 2021.
• Distribution and habitat use of the Madagascar Peregrine Falcon: first estimates for area of habitat and population size. bioRxiv, 2021.
• Bio-Aerodynamic Flow Field Optimization in PEM Fuel Cells: A Peregrine Falcon-Inspired Flow Field Approach. Hydrogen, 2025.
• Using social media to document the persistence of the Peregrine Falcon and the Lanner Falcon across South Africa. Journal of Ornithology, 2025.
• Understanding Environmental Contamination Through the Lens of the Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus). Environments, 2024.
• Interactive comment on “ A Global Model of Predicted Peregrine Falcon ( Falco peregrinus ) Distribution with Open Source GIS Code and 104 Open Access Layers for use by the global public ” by Sumithra Sriram and Falk Huettmann. 2017.
• A Global Model of Predicted Peregrine Falcon ( Falco peregrinus ) Distribution with Open Source GIS Code and 104 Open Access Layers for use by the global public. 2016.
• PEREGRINE FALCON FALCO PEREGRINUS IN BRAZIL: NATURAL HISTORY THROUGH THE LENS OF CITIZEN SCIENCE. Ornitologia Neotropical, 2023.
• Distribution and demographic parameters of the Peregrine falcon "Falco peregrinus" L., 1756 in Gipuzkoa. 2018.
• Breeding Habitat Characteristics of Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos (Linnaeus, 1758), Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus (Cretzschmar, 1829) and Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus Tunstall, 1771 in the Balkan Mountain Range, Bulgaria. Acta Zoologica Bulgarica, 2021.
• Home range size and habitat requirements of peregrine falcons on the Cape Peninsula, South Africa. Journal of Raptor Research, 1998.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.