Octopus Intelligence: How Smart Are They?

Octopus intelligence is real, measurable, and unlike anything else in the animal kingdom. The evidence shows that octopuses solve novel problems, use tools, learn by observation, and coordinate eight flexible arms through a nervous system that is mostly distributed outside the brain. For students, researchers, and life-science professionals, the practical question is not whether octopuses are smart, but how their intelligence works and what it means for animal welfare, robotics, and our understanding of cognition itself.

This article examines the evidence for octopus intelligence across problem-solving, tool use, learning, and social behavior. It compares octopus intelligence to other animals, explains the neural basis of their cognition, and provides practical frameworks for assessing intelligence in captive octopuses. The content is grounded in peer-reviewed research and is intended for readers who need accurate, usable information for research, husbandry, or educational purposes.

What the Evidence Shows About Octopus Intelligence

Octopuses are widely regarded as the most intelligent invertebrates. The scientific record supports this view through multiple lines of evidence: complex problem-solving, tool use, observational learning, play behavior, and a nervous system architecture that is fundamentally different from vertebrates.

A 2018 review in Results and Problems in Cell Differentiation describes Octopus vulgaris as having independently evolved the largest and most complex nervous system among invertebrates, along with sophisticated behaviors that emerged in a separate evolutionary lineage from vertebrates. The same review highlights unusual traits that contribute to this intelligence, including arms capable of a wide range of movements without skeletal support, developed eyes with complex visual behavior, chemoreceptors in the epidermis, suckers, and mouth, and a discrete olfactory organ. The authors also note the occurrence of adult neurogenesis and high levels of RNA editing as mechanisms that help octopuses face environmental challenges (Octopus vulgaris: An Alternative in Evolution).

A 2012 review in Current Biology frames octopus intelligence through the concept of embodied organization. The author argues that the octopus's unique flexible body and unusual morphology imposed evolutionary pressures that led to intelligent behavior emerging from the animal's embodied organization. The term "intelligent embodiment" comes from robotics and refers to designing autonomous systems where behavior emerges from dynamic physical and sensory interactions of materials, morphology, and environment. The review suggests that similar embodied principles help explain intelligent behavior in all biological systems (An embodied view of octopus neurobiology).

The most direct evidence of octopus brain function comes from a 2023 study in Current Biology that successfully recorded electrical activity from the brains of behaving octopuses. This was a technical breakthrough because octopuses lack any hard structure to anchor recording equipment and use their arms to remove foreign objects. The researchers implanted a portable data logger and electrodes into the vertical lobe system, recording brain activity for up to 12 hours from unanesthetized, untethered octopuses. They identified several distinct neural activity patterns that appeared consistently across all animals. Some patterns resembled those in mammalian neural tissue, while others, such as episodes of 2 Hz large amplitude oscillations, had not been reported before (Recording electrical activity from the brain of behaving octopus).

The Neural Basis of Octopus Intelligence

A Nervous System Built Differently

The octopus nervous system is organized in a way that has no direct parallel in vertebrates. Over two-thirds of octopus neurons reside not in the central brain but in the arms themselves. This distributed architecture enables each arm to perform local sensing, prediction, and motor control, while the central brain coordinates global behaviors such as hunting, navigation, and camouflage (The Embodied Octopus: Distributed Intelligence and Active Inference in a Flexible Body).

This arrangement solves a computational problem that vertebrates never face. The octopus must control thousands of degrees of freedom in a soft-bodied morphology, making purely centralized control computationally intractable. Instead, the nervous system exhibits a multi-scale division of labor between local and global processing. Researchers argue this organization is best understood through hierarchical active inference, where local generative models operate at the periphery of the body while higher-level priors govern goal-directed policy selection (The Embodied Octopus: Distributed Intelligence and Active Inference in a Flexible Body).

Embodied Intelligence in Action

The concept of embodied intelligence explains how octopuses manage their remarkable flexibility. A 2023 study on arm search behavior found that octopuses rely on a contact-based search strategy that emerges from local sucker coordination. The researchers designed visually occluded foraging tasks and tracked arm motion as octopuses attempted to find and retrieve food rewards. They found that the octopus simplifies the control of its soft, highly flexible limbs through local sucker coordination instead of central planning of every movement (Mechanisms of octopus arm search behavior without visual feedback).

This distributed approach has inspired robotics researchers. A 2025 study in Science Robotics describes how octopuses exploit an efficient neuromuscular hierarchy to achieve complex dexterous body manipulation, integrating sensor-rich suckers, in-arm embodied computation, and centralized higher-level reasoning. The researchers demonstrated that by coupling suction flow with local fluidic circuitry, soft robots can achieve octopus-like low-level embodied intelligence, including gently grasping delicate objects, adaptive curling, and encapsulating objects of unknown geometries. As in octopuses, most computation occurs within lower-level local circuitries, with minimum information transmitted to the high-level decision-making of the "brain" (Embodying soft robots with octopus-inspired hierarchical suction intelligence).

The Vertical Lobe System

The vertical lobe system is a key structure in the octopus brain, and its functions have been proposed largely based on lesioning experiments. The 2023 recording study provided the first direct measurements of activity in this system during behavior. The researchers identified distinct patterns that appeared consistently in all animals, with some resembling mammalian neural activity and others being novel. This work is a critical step toward understanding how the octopus brain controls behavior (Recording electrical activity from the brain of behaving octopus).

Problem-Solving and Learning

Observational Learning and Novel Problem Solving

Octopuses demonstrate the ability to learn by observing others and to solve problems they have never encountered before. A 2026 study in Current Biology demonstrated that Octopus bimaculoides can learn to use a mirror to localize a reward outside the line of sight. The researchers projected a virtual crab that was visible only via mirror reflection onto a tank wall. Three octopuses were trained to navigate to the projection site instead of the mirror. All three learned the task, successfully choosing the correct side in 73% of trials. Critically, the octopuses sometimes moved away from the visible reflection and climbed over the side walls of the start chamber to reach visually occluded locations that were spatially aligned with the reflected prey location. This behavior suggests the ability to inhibit a direct approach to salient visual stimuli and a spatial representation that integrates mirror information (Octopus bimaculoides can learn to utilize a mirror to localize a reward outside the line of sight).

This finding is significant because mirror-mediated localization of hidden objects is well documented in vertebrates but had never been demonstrated in invertebrates. Using mirrors to locate otherwise occluded objects is a form of mediated perception, linking a visible reflection to an occluded location, and is seen by some researchers as a precursor to self-recognition. Cephalopods offer a fascinating test case of convergent cognition, having independently evolved sophisticated perceptual and cognitive abilities similar to mammals after diverging from a common ancestor over 520 million years ago (Octopus bimaculoides can learn to utilize a mirror to localize a reward outside the line of sight).

Tactical Deception

A 2025 paper in Trends in Ecology and Evolution outlines why cephalopods, including octopuses and cuttlefish, are ideal candidates for studying the link between deception and cognition. Many animals rely on deception, including signaling misinformation, to gain advantages. While many deceptive strategies rely on deterministic patterns or conditioning, some taxa can flexibly adapt their deceptive behavior to the identity, perspective, or inferred goals of the observer. These context-dependent deceptive strategies could be considered tactical deception if they rely on higher-level cognitive processes. The authors suggest tactical deception as a framework to study aspects of cognition in other animals (Tactical deception in cephalopods: a new framework for understanding cognition).

Play Behavior

Play is considered an essential part of development that supports learning, memory, and the development of flexible behavioral strategies. A 2025 study in PLoS ONE characterized play behavior in wild-caught, laboratory-housed California Two-Spot Octopuses (Octopus bimaculoides), a species with growing relevance as a model in biomedical research. The study established a behavioral repertoire for play in this species and encouraged further research into behavior and welfare (Evidence of play behavior in captive California two-spot octopuses, Octopus bimaculoides). An earlier preprint of the same research is available on bioRxiv (Evidence of play behavior in captive California Two-Spot Octopuses, Octopus bimaculoides).

Octopus Intelligence Compared to Other Animals

Octopus Intelligence vs Human Intelligence

Comparing octopus intelligence to human intelligence requires careful framing. Octopuses and humans diverged from a common ancestor over 520 million years ago, and their intelligence evolved independently. The octopus brain contains a very large number of neurons organized into numerous distinct lobes, but the architecture is fundamentally different from the vertebrate brain (Recording electrical activity from the brain of behaving octopus).

Human intelligence is characterized by extensive social learning, language, cumulative culture, and abstract reasoning. Octopus intelligence is characterized by embodied problem-solving, rapid adaptation to novel environments, and distributed neural processing. The octopus does not build lasting social structures or transmit culture across generations in the way humans do. However, the octopus solves spatial problems, learns from observation, and adapts its behavior to new situations in ways that rival many vertebrates.

The comparison is best understood as convergent evolution: two lineages solving similar ecological problems through different neural architectures. A 2022 paper in the Journal of Human Earth and Future examines intelligence through the lens of perspectivalism, drawing lessons from both octopus intelligence and artificial intelligence to argue that intelligence must be understood relative to the body and environment in which it operates (Intelligence in Light of Perspectivalism: Lessons from Octopus Intelligence and Artificial Intelligence).

Octopus Intelligence Ranking

Ranking octopus intelligence against other animals is complicated by the fact that different species excel at different cognitive tasks. The following table provides a practical comparison based on documented evidence.

Octopus Intelligence vs Squid

Octopuses and squids are both cephalopods but have evolved different cognitive strategies. Octopuses are benthic, meaning they live on the seafloor, and their intelligence is closely tied to their need to navigate complex, unstructured environments with eight highly flexible arms. Squids are pelagic, living in the open water, and their intelligence is oriented toward rapid swimming, schooling behavior, and sophisticated camouflage.

The 2018 review in Results and Problems in Cell Differentiation notes that Octopus vulgaris underwent a radical modification to cope with the benthic lifestyle, diverging from other cephalopods in terms of body plan, anatomy, behavior, and intelligence. The octopus independently evolved the largest and most complex nervous system among invertebrates in a separate evolutionary lineage (Octopus vulgaris: An Alternative in Evolution).

Squids have not been documented to use tools or solve problems at the level of octopuses. Their nervous system is more centralized, and their arms are less independently controlled. The octopus's distributed nervous system, with its in-arm computation, appears to be an adaptation to the demands of benthic life that squids do not face.

At a Glance: Key Evidence for Octopus Intelligence

Practical Assessment of Octopus Intelligence

Setting Up an Observation Protocol

For researchers, students, and aquaculture professionals working with octopuses, assessing intelligence requires a structured approach. The following steps provide a practical framework for observing and documenting intelligent behavior.

Step 1: Establish baseline behavior. Before testing any cognitive ability, observe the octopus in its home environment for at least one week. Record feeding responses, activity patterns, and reactions to environmental changes. This baseline is essential for distinguishing intelligent behavior from routine responses.

Step 2: Design controlled problem-solving tasks. Use tasks that the octopus has never encountered. The mirror task described in the 2026 Current Biology study is one example, but simpler tasks can be designed. Place a food reward inside a clear container with a lid that must be removed, or hide food in a location that requires the octopus to navigate an obstacle. Record whether the octopus solves the task and how long it takes.

Step 3: Test for observational learning. Allow one octopus to observe another solving a task, then test whether the observer can solve the same task. This requires at least two octopuses in separate tanks with visual access to each other.

Step 4: Document arm coordination. Use video recording to track arm movements during foraging. Note whether the octopus uses a contact-based search strategy, as documented in the 2023 study, or whether it appears to plan movements in advance (Mechanisms of octopus arm search behavior without visual feedback).

Step 5: Record and analyze data. Maintain detailed records of each trial, including success rates, latency to solution, and behavioral observations. Video analysis is essential because octopus behavior is fast and complex.

Records and Measurements

Accurate record-keeping is critical for any intelligence assessment. The following measurements are recommended:

Common Failure Patterns in Intelligence Assessment

Several common errors can undermine the validity of octopus intelligence assessments.

Failure to control for prior experience. Octopuses are rapid learners. If an octopus has encountered a similar task before, its performance reflects memory instead of novel problem-solving. Always use novel tasks or clearly document prior exposure.

Confusing motivation with intelligence. An octopus that is not hungry may not perform a task even if it understands the solution. Ensure consistent feeding schedules and motivation levels across trials.

Inadequate environmental enrichment. A 2023 study in Animals found that octopuses kept in enriched environments showed significantly more body patterns and gained significantly more weight than subjects kept in basic environments. Octopuses in basic environments exhibited body patterns similar to those seen under situations of hostility and conflict. Environmental enrichment is therefore not optional for intelligence research, it is a prerequisite for valid behavioral observation (Effects of Environmental Enrichment on the Behavior of Octopus vulgaris in a Recirculating Aquaculture System).

Overinterpreting single observations. A single instance of apparent problem-solving may be coincidental. Require multiple successful trials before concluding that a behavior reflects intelligence.

Ignoring individual differences. Octopuses, like humans, vary in individual cognitive ability. Document individual variation instead of averaging across animals.

Welfare and Safety Context

Intelligence and Welfare Requirements

The evidence for octopus intelligence has direct implications for welfare. Animals that can solve problems, learn from observation, and engage in play have cognitive needs that must be met in captivity. The 2025 play behavior study in PLoS ONE explicitly notes that play may serve as an informative factor in assessing an animal's welfare state and in improving care and husbandry practices (Evidence of play behavior in captive California two-spot octopuses, Octopus bimaculoides).

The 2023 enrichment study in Animals provides concrete evidence that environmental complexity affects octopus welfare. Octopuses in enriched environments showed more diverse body patterns and gained more weight than those in basic environments. The authors recommend environmental enrichment for individuals kept in recirculating aquaculture systems (Effects of Environmental Enrichment on the Behavior of Octopus vulgaris in a Recirculating Aquaculture System).

Practical Enrichment Recommendations

Based on the documented evidence, the following enrichment strategies are supported:

Provide novel objects. Octopuses interact with and learn about novel objects. Rotate enrichment items regularly to prevent habituation.

Create visual complexity. The mirror study demonstrates that octopuses can process reflected visual information. Mirrors and other visual stimuli may provide cognitive engagement, though the 2026 study notes that octopuses react to mirror images as though they were conspecifics (Octopus bimaculoides can learn to utilize a mirror to localize a reward outside the line of sight).

Offer problem-solving opportunities. Food puzzles and containers that require manipulation provide cognitive stimulation.

Allow for play behavior. The documented play behavior in Octopus bimaculoides suggests that opportunities for play should be provided in captive settings.

Professional Escalation Criteria

Certain observations warrant escalation to a veterinarian or animal behavior specialist:

Persistent stereotypic behavior. Repetitive, invariant behaviors that serve no apparent function may indicate inadequate enrichment or welfare problems.

Refusal to eat for more than three days. This may indicate stress, illness, or inadequate environmental conditions.

Self-harm or arm autotomy. This is a serious welfare concern that requires immediate professional attention.

Aggression toward conspecifics. While octopuses are generally solitary, aggression can occur in captive settings and may require separation.

Sudden behavioral change. A previously active octopus that becomes lethargic, or a previously calm octopus that becomes agitated, warrants investigation.

Octopus Intelligence in Robotics and Technology

Octopus-Inspired Robotics

The study of octopus intelligence has direct applications in robotics. The octopus offers a powerful biological model for soft robotics, combining reversible suction adhesion, continuum arm motion, and reliable performance in wet environments. A 2025 review in Biomimetics examines recent octopus-inspired soft grippers through three functional dimensions: structural and sensing devices, control strategies, and AI-driven applications. The review summarizes suction-cup geometries, tentacle-like actuators, and hybrid structures, together with optical, triboelectric, ionic, and deformation-based sensing modules for contact detection, force estimation, and material recognition (Design and Sensing Frameworks of Soft Octopus-Inspired Grippers Toward Artificial Intelligence).

The 2025 Science Robotics study on suction intelligence demonstrates how octopus-inspired principles can be implemented in soft robotic systems. The researchers showed that by exploiting the fluidic energy and information capacity of simple suction cups, soft computational elements, and soft actuators, robots can mimic key aspects of the octopus's neuromuscular structure. The suction intelligence works at two levels: low-level embodied intelligence for grasping and adaptive curling, and high-level perception for contact detection and surface roughness classification (Embodying soft robots with octopus-inspired hierarchical suction intelligence).

Octopus-Inspired Adhesion

The octopus suction cup structure achieves adhesion through differential pressure, showing strong adhesion in both dry and wet environments. A 2023 study in the Journal of Materials Chemistry B describes the construction of octopus-bionic patches using 3D light-curing printing. The researchers developed a composite hydrogel and constructed a structure mimicking the octopus sucker using digital light processing. The resulting patches have strong adhesion, good biocompatibility, and multi-functionality, with applications in medical adhesives and intelligent climbing robots (3D light-curing printing to construct versatile octopus-bionic patches).

Embodied Intelligence in Artificial Systems

The concept of embodied intelligence, derived from octopus neurobiology, has influenced artificial intelligence and robotics. A 2012 paper in the Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation describes the design and development of a soft robotic octopus arm exploiting embodied intelligence (Design and development of a soft robotic octopus arm exploiting embodied intelligence). Subsequent work has continued this line of research, including soft robots inspired by octopus behavior that can climb vertical ladders and walk on horizontal planes (MAMEYAKA II: A soft robot inspired by an octopus behavior, MAMEYAKAIV: A Soft Robot Inspired by Octopus Behavior).

The 2026 perspective paper on embodied octopus intelligence argues that octopus cognition provides a living model of decentralized, hierarchical predictive processing with implications for artificial systems that seek to embody similar principles (The Embodied Octopus: Distributed Intelligence and Active Inference in a Flexible Body).

Limitations of Current Research

Technical Challenges

Studying octopus intelligence presents unique technical challenges. The 2023 brain recording study in Current Biology notes that because the octopus lacks any hard structure to which recording equipment can be anchored, and because it uses its eight flexible arms to remove any foreign object attached to the outside of its body, in vivo recording of electrical activity from untethered, behaving octopuses had not been possible until the development of the portable data logger technique (Recording electrical activity from the brain of behaving octopus).

Sample Size Limitations

Many octopus cognition studies use small sample sizes. The mirror study, for example, used three octopuses (Octopus bimaculoides can learn to utilize a mirror to localize a reward outside the line of sight). While the results are significant, the small sample sizes reflect the practical difficulty of maintaining and testing octopuses in laboratory settings.

Species Differences

Most research has focused on a few species, particularly Octopus vulgaris and Octopus bimaculoides. The 2008 review in Current Biology titled "Octopuses" provides general information about the group, but intelligence may vary substantially across the more than 300 octopus species (Octopuses). A 2015 article in the Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association titled "Scary smart" reflects the growing recognition of octopus intelligence in veterinary and animal care communities (Scary smart).

Interpretive Challenges

The 2025 paper on tactical deception in cephalopods notes that while many deceptive strategies rely on deterministic patterns or conditioning, some taxa can flexibly adapt their deceptive behavior to the identity, perspective, or inferred goals of the observer. Determining whether a behavior reflects higher-level cognitive processes or learned associations requires careful experimental design (Tactical deception in cephalopods: a new framework for understanding cognition).

Frequently Asked Questions

How does octopus intelligence compare to human intelligence?

Octopus and human intelligence evolved independently over more than 520 million years of separate evolution. Humans excel at language, abstract reasoning, and cumulative culture. Octopuses excel at embodied problem-solving, rapid adaptation to novel environments, and distributed neural processing. The octopus brain contains a very large number of neurons organized into numerous distinct lobes, but the architecture is fundamentally different from the vertebrate brain (Recording electrical activity from the brain of behaving octopus). Direct comparison is difficult because the two lineages solve different ecological problems with different neural tools.

Where does octopus intelligence rank among animals?

Octopuses are generally considered the most intelligent invertebrates. They demonstrate tool use, observational learning, mirror-mediated localization, play behavior, and tactical deception. Among vertebrates, octopuses compare favorably with many mammals and birds on specific cognitive tasks, though they do not exhibit the cumulative culture or complex social cognition seen in humans, great apes, or corvids. The 2018 review in Results and Problems in Cell Differentiation describes the octopus as having independently evolved the largest and most complex nervous system among invertebrates (Octopus vulgaris: An Alternative in Evolution).

How does octopus intelligence compare to squid intelligence?

Octopuses and squids are both cephalopods but have evolved different cognitive strategies. Octopuses are benthic and their intelligence is tied to navigating complex, unstructured environments with eight highly flexible arms. Squids are pelagic and their intelligence is oriented toward rapid swimming, schooling, and camouflage. The octopus's distributed nervous system, with over two-thirds of neurons in the arms, appears to be an adaptation to benthic life that squids do not share. Squids have not been documented to use tools or solve problems at the level of octopuses.

Can octopuses use tools?

Yes. The scientific literature documents tool use in octopuses, including the use of coconut shells and other objects for shelter and protection. The mirror study in Current Biology demonstrates that octopuses can use reflected visual information to locate hidden rewards, which is a form of mediated perception (Octopus bimaculoides can learn to utilize a mirror to localize a reward outside the line of sight).

How do octopuses learn?

Octopuses learn through multiple mechanisms, including observational learning, trial and error, and play. The play behavior study in PLoS ONE notes that play supports learning, memory, and the development of flexible behavioral strategies (Evidence of play behavior in captive California two-spot octopuses, Octopus bimaculoides). The mirror study demonstrates that octopuses can learn a novel task through training and can generalize that learning to new situations.

Why is most octopus intelligence in their arms?

Over two-thirds of octopus neurons reside in the arms instead of the central brain. This distributed architecture enables each arm to perform local sensing, prediction, and motor control, while the central brain coordinates global behaviors. This arrangement solves the computational problem of controlling thousands of degrees of freedom in a soft-bodied morphology, making purely centralized control computationally intractable (The Embodied Octopus: Distributed Intelligence and Active Inference in a Flexible Body). The 2023 arm search study found that octopuses rely on a contact-based search strategy that emerges from local sucker coordination (Mechanisms of octopus arm search behavior without visual feedback).

Do octopuses play?

Yes. A 2025 study in PLoS ONE documented play behavior in captive California Two-Spot Octopuses (Octopus bimaculoides). The study established a behavioral repertoire

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References and Further Reading

• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
• Embodying soft robots with octopus-inspired hierarchical suction intelligence.. Science robotics, 2025.
• Design and Sensing Frameworks of Soft Octopus-Inspired Grippers Toward Artificial Intelligence.. Biomimetics (Basel, Switzerland), 2025.
• Octopus vulgaris: An Alternative in Evolution.. Results and problems in cell differentiation, 2018.
• Octopuses.. Current biology : CB, 2008.
• Scary smart.. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 2015.
• An embodied view of octopus neurobiology.. Current biology : CB, 2012.
• 3D light-curing printing to construct versatile octopus-bionic patches.. Journal of materials chemistry. B, 2023.
• Recording electrical activity from the brain of behaving octopus.. Current biology : CB, 2023.
• Octopus bimaculoides can learn to utilize a mirror to localize a reward outside the line of sight.. 2026.
• The Embodied Octopus: Distributed Intelligence and Active Inference in a Flexible Body. 2026.
• Variant calling in genomics: A comparative performance analysis and decision guide.. 2026.
• Tactical deception in cephalopods: a new framework for understanding cognition.. 2025.
• MAMEYAKA II: A soft robot inspired by an octopus behavior. The Proceedings of JSME annual Conference on Robotics and Mechatronics (Robomec), 2023.
• Evidence of play behavior in captive California two-spot octopuses, Octopus bimaculoides. PLoS ONE, 2025.
• MAMEYAKAIV: A Soft Robot Inspired by Octopus Behavior. 2026 International Conference on Image Processing and Robotics (ICIPRoB), 2026.
• Evidence of play behavior in captive California Two-Spot Octopuses, Octopus bimaculoides. bioRxiv, 2024.
• The switching and learning behavior of an octopus cell implemented on FPGA.. Mathematical biosciences and engineering : MBE, 2024.
• Mechanisms of octopus arm search behavior without visual feedback. bioRxiv, 2023.
• Effects of Environmental Enrichment on the Behavior of Octopus vulgaris in a Recirculating Aquaculture System. Animals, 2023.
• Intelligence in Light of Perspectivalism: Lessons from Octopus Intelligence and Artificial Intelligence. Journal of Human Earth and Future, 2022.
• Octopus: Exploiting the Edge Intelligence for Accessible 5G Mobile Performance Enhancement. IEEE ACM Transactions on Networking, 2023.
• Design and development of a soft robotic octopus arm exploiting embodied intelligence. Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, 2012.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.