Nest Builders Beyond Birds: Mammals, Reptiles, and Insects

Nest building is a widespread animal behavior that extends far beyond the class Aves. Mammals, reptiles, and insects all construct structures for shelter, reproduction, and offspring care, and these behaviors have deep evolutionary roots. For students, researchers, and life-science professionals, understanding non-avian nest builders provides a comparative framework for studying animal architecture, parental care, and ecological adaptation. This article examines the diversity of nest-building behaviors across these groups, describes construction methods and nest site selection, and offers a practical checklist for identifying and categorizing non-avian nests in the field.

The Evolutionary Context of Nest Building

Nest building predates modern birds by a substantial margin. The fossil record for nest structures is limited because organic materials decompose and rarely preserve, but indirect evidence from egg fossils and nesting sites offers clues about early nesting behavior. Research published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B indicates that the earliest dinosaurs likely buried eggs below ground and covered them with soil so that heat from the substrate fueled embryo development. Some later dinosaurs laid partially exposed clutches where adults incubated them and protected them from predators and parasites. The nests of euornithine birds, the precursors to modern birds, were probably partially open, while neornithine birds, or modern birds, were likely the first to build fully exposed nests. This evolutionary trajectory shows a shift from simple burial to complex open structures, accompanied by changes in reproductive traits such as the reduction from two functional ovaries in crocodilians and many non-avian dinosaurs to one functional ovary in female birds. The trend among extant birds and their ancestors has been toward greater cognitive abilities to construct in a wider diversity of sites and to provide more care for fewer, increasingly altricial offspring. Highly derived passerines reflect this pattern with many species building small, architecturally complex nests in open sites and investing significant care into altricial young. This evolutionary framework helps explain why nest-building behavior appears across such a wide range of animal taxa today.

Mammalian Nest Builders

Mammals construct nests for thermoregulation, predator avoidance, and rearing young. The complexity of mammalian nests varies widely, from simple excavated burrows to elaborate woven platforms. Nest-building behavior in mammals is often learned instead of purely instinctive, and it can be modified based on environmental conditions and individual experience.

Great Apes and Arboreal Platform Builders

Among primates, orangutans are notable for their sophisticated nest-building behavior. Sumatran orangutans learn the process of building nests from their mothers and start building nests around the age of 0.5 years. Research at the Jantho Orangutan Reintroduction Station in Aceh Besar, Indonesia, documented that orangutan nests have the most intricate arrangement of any primate nests. Orangutans build nests as places to rest, play, and protect themselves from predators and insect bites such as mosquitoes. Nest location varies according to the needs and context of the nest trees, and nest shape and position typically differ based on sex, age level, and body weight. Field observations at the Jantho station identified four nest shapes: single round, flat oval, tiered, and irregularly widened. Nest classes 1, 2, and 3 were found, while other classes were absent. Nests in position 2, likely referring to a specific height or branch position category, were the most common at the study site, and position 5 was not found, indicating that no orangutans at the study site preferred to play on the ground. These findings demonstrate that orangutan nest architecture is context-dependent and reflects individual and demographic variation.

Rodents and Small Mammal Nest Construction

Rodents are prolific nest builders that construct nests in burrows, tree cavities, and above-ground vegetation. Many rodent species gather grasses, leaves, fur, and other soft materials to line their nests, providing insulation for altricial young. The nesting behavior of rodents serves critical thermoregulatory functions, particularly for species that breed in cold climates or during winter months. Some rodents build communal nests that house multiple adults and litters, which can improve thermoregulation and reduce predation risk through group vigilance. The specific materials and construction methods used by rodents vary by species and habitat availability, and individuals may adjust nest construction in response to ambient temperature and reproductive stage.

Mammal Nests as Habitat for Other Species

Mammal nests can serve as habitat for other organisms, creating ecological connections that extend beyond the nest builder itself. Research on Chagas disease vectors in southern Ecuador found a significant association between triatomine infestation and mammal nests, with 50.1 percent of infested nests located within mammal habitats. Notably, 35.2 percent of these nests contained anthropogenic materials, particularly near human settlements. This finding illustrates that mammal nests are not isolated structures but rather components of broader ecological networks that can influence disease transmission dynamics. The presence of human-derived materials in mammal nests highlights how environmental disturbance and pollution can alter nest composition and potentially affect vector ecology. For researchers studying zoonotic diseases, understanding the role of mammal nests as habitat for disease vectors is an important consideration in disease ecology and public health planning.

Reptilian Nest Builders

Reptiles exhibit a range of nesting behaviors that differ fundamentally from those of birds and mammals. Most reptiles are oviparous and lay eggs, but they generally provide no parental care after egg deposition. Instead, reptilian nesting behavior focuses on selecting appropriate nest sites and constructing nests that provide suitable thermal and hydric conditions for embryo development.

Crocodilians and Mound Nests

Crocodilians are among the most notable reptilian nest builders. Many crocodilian species construct mound nests using vegetation, soil, and mud, which they scrape together with their hind limbs and snouts. The decomposition of organic material within the mound generates heat that supplements solar warming, helping to maintain optimal incubation temperatures. Female crocodilians guard their nests vigorously during the incubation period, defending them against predators and monitoring their condition. Some species also assist hatchlings by excavating the nest when eggs begin to hatch and carrying young to water. This level of parental care is unusual among reptiles and demonstrates that nest building in this group can be associated with extended post-oviposition investment.

Turtles and Excavated Nest Cavities

Sea turtles and freshwater turtles dig nest cavities in sand or soil using their hind flippers or feet. The female turtle excavates a body pit and then an egg chamber, deposits her clutch, and covers the eggs with sand or soil before returning to the water or her home range. Nest site selection in turtles is critical because incubation temperature determines offspring sex in many species, a phenomenon known as temperature-dependent sex determination. Females may travel long distances to reach suitable nesting beaches, and nest depth and location influence thermal conditions experienced by developing embryos. The nest cavity provides protection from predators and desiccation, but the female provides no further care after covering the nest.

Lizards and Simple Nest Scrapes

Many lizard species construct simple nests by excavating shallow burrows or scrapes in soil, leaf litter, or rotting vegetation. Some species deposit eggs in communal nesting sites where multiple females lay eggs in the same location. Nest construction in lizards is often minimal compared to crocodilians or turtles, but the choice of nest site remains critical for embryo survival. Soil moisture, temperature, and oxygen availability all influence hatching success, and females may select nest sites based on these microhabitat characteristics. Some lizard species exhibit nest site fidelity, returning to the same general area year after year, which may reflect the availability of suitable nesting habitat.

Insect Nest Builders

Social insects are arguably the most accomplished nest builders outside of birds. Termites, ants, social bees, and social wasps construct nests of remarkable complexity that serve as the physical infrastructure for colony life. Research published in Insectes Sociaux reviews the construction and function of social insect nests and identifies general principles of collective construction and nest architecture. The review finds that selecting materials and nest sites are crucial decisions made by social insects that impact both the resulting nest architecture and colony survival. Social insects utilize cohesive, malleable material to build nests, and nests are often constructed in a modular manner, allowing social insects to exploit a variety of materials while growing to accommodate population increases from a few individuals to millions.

Regulatory Principles of Collective Construction

The regulatory principles that coordinate building behaviors are consistent across social insect taxa. Encounter rate, positive and negative feedback cycles, stigmergy, and genetic influence all govern the actions of multiple builders and result in a cohesive, functional structure. Stigmergy, the process by which work performed by an individual stimulates further work by other individuals, is particularly important in social insect nest construction. For example, a termite that deposits a soil pellet at a specific location creates a stimulus that attracts other termites to deposit pellets at the same location, gradually building a pillar or wall. This decentralized coordination allows large colonies to construct complex structures without central planning or individual insects possessing a complete blueprint of the final nest.

Termite Mounds and Subterranean Nests

Termites construct some of the most architecturally sophisticated nests in the animal kingdom. Mound-building termites create above-ground structures that can reach several meters in height, with internal networks of galleries, chambers, and ventilation shafts. The mound architecture facilitates gas exchange, temperature regulation, and humidity control, creating a stable microclimate for the colony. Subterranean termites build extensive underground tunnel systems that connect foraging sites to the central nest. The nest structure in termites is built from soil, saliva, and feces, which form a durable construction material. The modular nature of termite nests allows colonies to expand their structures as the population grows, adding new chambers and galleries as needed.

Ant Nests and Weaver Ants

Ants exhibit diverse nest-building strategies, from simple soil excavations to elaborate above-ground structures. Weaver ants in the genus Oecophylla construct nests by folding living leaves together and binding them with silk produced by their larvae. Research on the weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina has examined genetic polyethism in nest building, suggesting that genetic variation among workers may influence their roles in the construction process. Weaver ant colonies maintain a network of leaf nests across multiple trees, with each nest housing a portion of the colony. The silk-binding behavior of weaver ants represents a unique form of nest construction that relies on larval silk production and coordinated worker manipulation of leaves.

Social Bees and Wasps

Social bees and wasps construct nests from a variety of materials, including wax, plant fibers, and mud. Honey bees build wax combs within cavities, with hexagonal cells that serve as brood chambers and food storage. The hexagonal cell shape maximizes storage capacity while minimizing wax use, an efficient design that has been studied extensively. Social wasps construct paper nests by chewing plant fibers and mixing them with saliva to create a pulp that dries into a paper-like material. Wasp nests can be suspended from branches, attached to structures, or built underground, depending on the species. The nest architecture of social bees and wasps provides protection from predators and environmental conditions while organizing the colony's activities.

Dung Beetle Nest Construction

Not all insect nest builders are social. Dung beetles in the genus Scarabaeus construct nests for their offspring by rolling dung balls and burying them in the soil. Research on the dung beetle Scarabaeus catenatus has examined male participation in nest building, distinguishing between mating effort and paternal effort. The nest construction behavior of dung beetles involves excavating tunnels and chambers where dung balls are deposited and eggs are laid. The dung provides food for developing larvae, and the nest structure protects the brood from desiccation and predators. This solitary nesting behavior contrasts with the collective construction of social insect nests but demonstrates the diversity of nest-building strategies across insects.

Nest Site Selection and Environmental Influences

Nest site selection is a critical decision that affects reproductive success across all nest-building taxa. The physical characteristics of nest sites, including location, depth, height, and surrounding habitat, influence thermal conditions, predation risk, and accessibility. Research on the small bee-eater in Pakistan examined how nest structure and surrounding habitat features correlate with reproduction. The study monitored 38 natural nests during the breeding season and found that cavity depth was a significant positive predictor of clutch size, while entrance diameter and nest height were not significantly related. Principal component analysis of standardized cavity dimensions showed that nest height was strongly associated with higher breeding success, while overall cavity size had a weaker, marginally positive correlation. Habitat distance variables showed only weak, non-significant trends after accounting for multicollinearity. Nest structural traits explained more variation in reproductive performance than landscape variables, with pseudo-R-squared values of 0.80 for clutch size and 0.59 for breeding success. Field monitoring showed a mean clutch size of 3.9 eggs, an overall hatching success of 77.5 percent, and a fledging success of 51.2 percent, yielding a 37.1 percent breeding success. The study highlights the importance of conserving sandy streambanks and mitigating human disturbance in proximity to active nests to conserve breeding success in small bee-eaters. As these findings were based on one site and a single breeding season, broader generalizations require replication across additional years and locations.

Temperature and Nesting Behavior

Environmental temperature plays a key role in shaping nesting behaviors for both endotherms and ectotherms. Research on avian incubation behavior demonstrates that temperature can affect daily energy budgets and nesting behaviors, and temperatures experienced by embryos affect viability and are important in shaping fitness-related traits in young birds. Incubation behavior can be monitored non-invasively by placing thermal probes into nests and analyzing temperature fluctuations that occur as parents attend and leave the nest. When other measures of temperature, such as ambient air or operative temperature, are collected simultaneously with incubation temperature, it is possible to compare shifts in behavior with environmental changes. The NestIQ program, developed using machine learning, allows researchers to quantify incubation behavior from large thermal datasets and track the behavior of diverse species. While this research focuses on birds, the principles apply to non-avian nest builders as well. For reptiles, nest temperature determines offspring sex in many species, and for insects, nest microclimate affects brood development and colony survival.

Urbanization and Behavioral Homogenization

Human activities, especially urbanization, are homogenizing species composition and eroding behavioral diversity. Research published in PLOS Biology introduces the concept of behavioral homogenization, the human-driven convergence of behavioral traits across individuals, populations, and species across space and time. Global examples of fear responses, foraging, communication, activity patterns, social behavior, cognition and exploration, habitat use, breeding-site choice, migration, and heterospecific interaction networks are used to argue that spatial and temporal beta-diversity in behavior is shrinking in human-dominated landscapes. Nest-building behavior is among the behavioral traits affected by urbanization. Urban environments may offer different nesting substrates, materials, and microclimates compared to natural habitats, and species that can adapt their nest-building behavior to urban conditions may thrive while others decline. The ecological and evolutionary consequences of behavioral homogenization, including for animal cultures and human-wildlife conflict, are important considerations for biodiversity conservation and management.

Anthropogenic Materials in Nests

The presence of anthropogenic materials in nests represents a specific form of environmental influence on nest-building behavior. Research on Rhodnius ecuadoriensis in southern Ecuador found that 35.2 percent of infested mammal nests contained anthropogenic materials, particularly near human settlements. The study examined 389 nests and yielded 1,089 individuals of Rhodnius ecuadoriensis, including both nymphs and adults. The infestation index in peridomestic areas dramatically decreased from 33.3 percent in 2018 to 0 percent in 2022, while sylvatic areas showed fluctuating infestation rates of 27.5 percent in 2018, 16.5 percent in 2022, and 22.2 percent in 2023. The study identified a significant association between triatomine infestation and mammal nests, with 50.1 percent of infested nests located within mammal habitats. This research demonstrates that anthropogenic materials can alter nest composition and potentially influence the ecology of species that use nests as habitat. For researchers and pest management professionals, understanding how human-derived materials affect nest-building behavior and associated species is relevant for disease vector control and biodiversity conservation.

At a Glance: Non-Avian Nest Builders

The following table provides a practical checklist of non-avian nest builders, their nest types, and typical nest locations. This summary is useful for field identification and comparative studies.

Practical Assessment of Non-Avian Nests

For researchers, wildlife managers, and students conducting field assessments of non-avian nests, a systematic approach improves data quality and comparability across studies. The following workflow outlines key steps for documenting and categorizing nest-building behavior.

Step 1: Identify the Nest Builder

Confirm the species responsible for the nest before recording structural details. Direct observation of the builder is the most reliable method, but indirect evidence such as tracks, scat, hair, feathers, or eggshell fragments can support identification. For insect nests, the presence of workers, soldiers, or brood can confirm the species. For mammal nests, hair samples or the presence of characteristic odors may aid identification. When the builder cannot be confirmed, record the nest as unidentified and note the evidence available.

Step 2: Document Nest Location and Position

Record the geographic coordinates, habitat type, and microhabitat characteristics of the nest site. Note whether the nest is above ground, on the ground, or below ground, and measure the height above ground for arboreal nests. For burrow nests, measure the depth and entrance dimensions. Record the substrate type, such as soil, sand, vegetation, or anthropogenic materials, and note the surrounding vegetation structure. The nest location data are essential for understanding habitat preferences and comparing nest site selection across populations.

Step 3: Measure Nest Dimensions and Architecture

Take standardized measurements of nest dimensions, including external diameter, internal diameter, depth, and height. For mound nests, measure the height and basal circumference. For cavity nests, measure the entrance diameter and cavity depth. Photograph the nest from multiple angles with a scale reference, and sketch the nest architecture if it is complex. For social insect nests, note the number of chambers, galleries, or cells if visible. Consistent measurement protocols allow comparisons across studies and species.

Step 4: Record Nest Materials

Identify and categorize the materials used in nest construction. Common categories include vegetation, soil, mud, silk, wax, plant fibers, animal hair, feathers, and anthropogenic materials. Note the relative abundance of each material type and whether materials appear to be collected from the surrounding environment or transported from a distance. The presence of anthropogenic materials may indicate adaptation to human-dominated landscapes and should be recorded separately.

Step 5: Monitor Nest Fate and Reproductive Outcomes

For nests containing eggs or young, monitor the nest at appropriate intervals to document hatching success, fledging success, or colony survival. Record the number of eggs, larvae, or offspring present at each visit, and note any signs of predation, parasitism, or disturbance. For long-term studies, use non-invasive monitoring methods such as thermal probes or remote cameras to minimize disturbance. The reproductive outcome data are critical for understanding the fitness consequences of nest-building decisions.

Records and Measurements for Nest Studies

Maintaining systematic records is essential for nest-building research. The following table outlines recommended data fields for nest monitoring studies.

Common Failure Patterns in Nest Studies

Field studies of non-avian nests encounter recurring challenges that can compromise data quality and interpretation. Recognizing these failure patterns helps researchers design more robust studies and interpret results appropriately.

Misidentification of Nest Builders

Nests are often attributed to the wrong species, particularly when the builder is not observed directly. Many nests are reused by different species over time, and some species occupy nests built by others. For example, a mammal nest may later be used by birds or insects, and an abandoned termite mound may house reptiles or small mammals. Misidentification can lead to incorrect conclusions about nest-building behavior and habitat preferences. Confirm the identity of the nest builder through direct observation or genetic analysis of nest materials when possible.

Disturbance from Monitoring Activities

Repeated visits to nests can disturb the occupants and alter their behavior. Nest monitoring may cause parents to abandon nests, attract predators to nest sites, or damage fragile nest structures. The act of measuring nests can compress soil, break vegetation, or introduce foreign materials. Use non-invasive monitoring methods whenever possible, maintain appropriate distances, and limit the frequency and duration of visits. For sensitive species, consider remote monitoring technologies such as cameras or thermal sensors.

Temporal and Spatial Sampling Bias

Nest studies that cover only one breeding season or one geographic location may not capture the full range of nest-building behavior. Nest site selection and nest architecture can vary across years due to environmental conditions, population density, and individual experience. Studies limited to accessible areas may miss nests in remote or difficult terrain. Replicate studies across multiple years and locations, and use systematic sampling designs that cover the full range of available habitats.

Incomplete Nest Fate Data

Determining the fate of nests is often difficult, particularly for subterranean or arboreal nests that are hard to access. Nests may fail between monitoring visits, and the cause of failure may be unknown. Predation events may leave no obvious signs, and abandoned nests may be difficult to distinguish from successful nests that have been vacated. Use frequent monitoring intervals during critical periods, and document all evidence of nest fate, including eggshell fragments, fecal material, and structural damage.

Welfare and Safety Considerations

Research involving nest-building animals requires attention to animal welfare and researcher safety. The following considerations apply to field studies of non-avian nest builders.

Minimizing Disturbance to Nesting Animals

Nesting animals are particularly vulnerable to disturbance during egg-laying, incubation, and offspring care. Disturbance can cause nest abandonment, increased predation risk, and reduced reproductive success. Researchers should minimize their presence near active nests, avoid handling eggs or young unless necessary, and follow institutional animal care and use guidelines. For species of conservation concern, additional permits and restrictions may apply.

Safety Around Large or Defensive Animals

Some nest-building animals defend their nests aggressively. Crocodilians guarding nests can be dangerous, and social insect colonies may sting or bite in defense of their nests. Researchers should maintain safe distances from defensive animals, use appropriate protective equipment, and work in teams when studying potentially dangerous species. Understanding the defensive behavior of the study species is essential for safe fieldwork.

Disease Vector Considerations

Nests may harbor disease vectors or pathogens that pose risks to researchers. The association between mammal nests and triatomine vectors of Chagas disease in Ecuador illustrates this concern. Researchers working with nests should be aware of local disease risks, use appropriate personal protective measures, and follow public health guidelines. When working in areas with known vector-borne disease transmission, consult local health authorities and take appropriate precautions.

Professional Escalation Criteria

Field researchers and wildlife managers should recognize situations that require consultation with specialized professionals or regulatory authorities. The following criteria indicate when escalation is appropriate.

Protected Species Encounters

If nest-building activity involves a species protected by national or international law, consult with the relevant wildlife authorities before proceeding with any study activities. Protected species may include endangered mammals, reptiles, or insects, and their nests may be protected even when the animals are not present. Research permits may be required, and unauthorized disturbance of protected species or their nests can result in legal penalties.

Disease Vector Findings

If nests are found to harbor disease vectors such as triatomine bugs, ticks, or mosquitoes, consult with public health authorities or medical entomologists. The presence of disease vectors in nests has implications for human health, particularly in peridomestic settings. Public health professionals can provide guidance on vector control measures and disease surveillance.

Structural Damage or Public Safety Concerns

If nests are located in structures occupied by humans, such as buildings, bridges, or other infrastructure, consult with pest management professionals or structural engineers. Large termite mounds, bee colonies, or wasp nests in or near human structures can pose safety risks, and their removal may require specialized expertise. In some jurisdictions, certain nest-building species are protected, and removal may require permits.

Frequently Asked Questions

What animals build nests?

Nest-building behavior occurs across mammals, reptiles, birds, and insects. Mammals such as orangutans and rodents construct nests for shelter and offspring care. Reptiles including crocodilians, turtles, and lizards build nests for egg deposition. Insects such as termites, ants, social bees, social wasps, and dung beetles construct nests that range from simple underground tunnels to elaborate above-ground mounds. The evolutionary history of nest building extends back to early dinosaurs, which buried eggs below ground before the emergence of more complex nest structures.

What animals build nests in trees?

Arboreal nest builders include orangutans, which construct platform nests in tree canopies for resting and protection, and weaver ants, which bind living leaves together with larval silk to create nests within trees. Many social wasps suspend paper nests from branches, and some social bees build exposed combs on tree limbs. Rodents such as squirrels may build leaf nests in tree forks, and various reptiles may use tree cavities for egg deposition.

What animals build nests on the ground?

Ground-nesting animals include crocodilians, which construct mound nests from vegetation and soil, and sea turtles, which excavate nest cavities in sandy beaches. Many lizard species deposit eggs in shallow scrapes or burrows in soil. Dung beetles bury dung balls in underground chambers, and some termite species build mounds that rise from ground level. Ground-nesting behavior is common among species that rely on soil temperature and moisture for embryo development.

How do social insects coordinate nest construction without a central planner?

Social insects coordinate nest construction through mechanisms including stigmergy, encounter rates, and positive and negative feedback cycles. Stigmergy refers to the process by which work performed by one individual stimulates further work by other individuals. For example, a termite depositing a soil pellet creates a stimulus that attracts other termites to deposit pellets at the same location, gradually building a structure. These decentralized mechanisms allow colonies to construct complex nests without any individual possessing a complete blueprint of the final structure.

Do reptiles provide parental care after nest construction?

Most reptiles provide no parental care after egg deposition, but crocodilians are a notable exception. Female crocodilians guard their nests during incubation, defend them against predators, and may assist hatchlings by excavating the nest and carrying young to water. This extended parental investment is unusual among reptiles and demonstrates that nest building in this group can be associated with significant post-oviposition care.

How does temperature affect nest-building behavior?

Temperature influences nesting behavior in both endotherms and ectotherms. For birds, environmental temperature shapes parental incubation behavior and the temperatures experienced by embryos, which affect viability and fitness-related traits in young. For reptiles, nest temperature can determine offspring sex in many species through temperature-dependent sex determination. For insects, nest microclimate affects brood development and colony survival. Researchers can monitor incubation behavior non-invasively using thermal probes placed in nests.

What is behavioral homogenization and how does it affect nest building?

Behavioral homogenization is the human-driven convergence of behavioral traits across individuals, populations, and species across space and time. Urbanization can erode behavioral diversity, including nest-building behavior, as species adapt to human-dominated landscapes. Urban environments may offer different nesting substrates, materials, and microclimates compared to natural habitats, and species that can adjust their nest-building behavior to urban conditions may thrive while others decline. This process has implications for biodiversity conservation and management.

Why do some nests contain anthropogenic materials?

Nests may contain anthropogenic materials such as plastic, fabric, paper, or other human-derived items when these materials are available in the environment. Research in Ecuador found that 35.2 percent of mammal nests infested with triatomine bugs contained anthropogenic materials, particularly near human settlements. The incorporation of anthropogenic materials into nests can alter nest composition and potentially affect the ecology of species that use nests as habitat. This phenomenon reflects the broader influence of human activities on animal behavior and habitat use.

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References and Further Reading

• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
• The evolution of nest site use and nest architecture in modern birds and their ancestors.. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences, 2023.
• Applications of machine learning in behavioral ecology: Quantifying avian incubation behavior and nest conditions in relation to environmental temperature.. PloS one, 2020.
• Anthropogenic influences on Rhodnius ecuadoriensis populations and nesting behaviors in sylvatic areas of southern ecuador.. 2025.
• Nest Depth and Height Are Associated with Breeding Outcomes in the Small Bee-Eater (Merops orientalis): A Preliminary Field Study from Pakistan.. 2026.
• Behavioral convergence under urbanization: An overlooked dimension of biotic homogenization.. 2026.
• Architecture of the insect society: comparative analysis of collective construction and social function of nests. Insectes Sociaux, 2025.
• Nature's Master Nest Builder: Reproductive Ecology and Nesting Behaviour of the Red-vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer) in Sikar District, Rajasthan. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), 2026.
• Entomophilous plants mediate the impacts of urban pressures on cavity-nesting insect diversity. Urban Ecosystems, 2026.
• Genetic polyethism and nest building in the weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina (FABRI-CIUS, 1775) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). 2011.
• Characteristics of The Introduced Orangutan Nest at Jantho Orangutan Reintroduction Station, Aceh Besar. Journal of Sylva Indonesiana, 2023.
• Male Participation in Nest Building in the Dung Beetle Scarabaeus catenatus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae): Mating Effort Versus Paternal Effort. Journal of insect behavior, 1998.
• URBAN DYNAMICS MODELLING USING ANT NEST BUILDING. 2009.
• A new theropod dinosaur lek in the Cretaceous Dakota Sandstone (Dinosaur Ridge, Colorado, USA). Cretaceous Research, 2025.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.