Longest Animal Tongues: Nature's Sticky Surprises

The animal kingdom contains several species with tongues that extend far beyond the familiar proportions seen in domestic livestock and companion animals. The chameleon, giant anteater, and tube-lipped nectar bat represent three distinct evolutionary solutions to the challenge of capturing food at a distance. This article examines the anatomical basis of extreme tongue length, the mechanical principles that make these feeding strategies possible, and the practical observations that farmers, veterinary professionals, and animal scientists can apply when assessing tongue health and function in the species they manage.

At a Glance: Extreme Tongue Adaptations Compared

The table above summarizes the four most documented examples of extreme tongue length in vertebrates. Each species demonstrates a different mechanical strategy for extending the tongue beyond the mouth, and each strategy carries implications for how tongue injuries and diseases present in related domestic species.

The Biomechanics of Tongue Projection

Ballistic Projection in Chameleons and Salamanders

The chameleon tongue operates as a ballistic system. The tongue is accelerated rapidly toward prey, and the tongue skeleton leaves the body of the animal entirely during projection. Research on the imperial cave salamander Hydromantes imperialis documents that these amphibians project their tongues up to 80% of body length, approximately 6 cm in an adult individual, making them the longest-distance tongue projectors among amphibians [6].

Electromyographic studies of the salamander tongue-projector muscle, the subarcualis rectus, reveal that muscle activation patterns change predictably with prey distance. The strap-like buccal portion of the muscle activates first and for the longest duration, transmitting force generated by the posterior muscle region to the floor of the mouth. During short-distance projection, activation follows a posterior-to-anterior wave pattern. During the most extreme long-distance projections, all muscle regions activate simultaneously [6].

The duration of muscle activity and the electrical area of each recorded region increase with increasing prey distance, demonstrating greater muscle recruitment during long-distance projection. Notably, prey-capture success did not influence the muscle activation patterns, indicating that tongue projection is controlled in a feed-forward manner instead of adjusted based on feedback during the strike [6].

The Role of the Hyoid Apparatus

The hyoid apparatus serves as the structural foundation for tongue movement across vertebrate species. In animals with extreme tongue length, the hyoid bones and associated muscles are elongated and modified to accommodate the extended tongue. The giant anteater possesses a hyoid apparatus that extends well beyond the skull, allowing the tongue to reach deep into ant and termite nests.

For farmers and veterinarians working with cattle, buffalo, and other ruminants, the hyoid apparatus anchors the tongue within the oral cavity. Damage to the hyoid bones or associated muscles can impair tongue function and reduce an animal's ability to prehend feed and perform normal oral grooming behaviors.

Tongue Structure and Sensory Function

Papillae Distribution Across Species

Comparative anatomical studies of tongue papillae reveal significant variation across mammalian species. Research examining the ultrastructural morphology and distribution of filiform and fungiform tongue papillae in Egyptian mice, fruit bats, and long-eared hedgehogs documents species-specific patterns of papilla density and distribution [24]. These differences correlate with dietary specialization and feeding behavior.

Filiform papillae provide mechanical grip and protection for the tongue surface, while fungiform papillae house taste buds and provide gustatory sensation. The distribution of these papillae types varies according to the mechanical demands of each species' diet. Species that consume abrasive or tough foods typically have denser filiform papillae coverage, while species that rely on precise taste discrimination show higher fungiform papilla density.

Gustatory Processing and Temperature Effects

Taste perception is influenced by the temperature of both the stimulus and the oral epithelium. Electrophysiological recordings from taste-sensitive neurons in the nucleus of the solitary tract in mice demonstrate that responses to sucrose are enhanced under constant and relative warming conditions compared with constant cooling. Cooling sucrose following warm adaptation only marginally reduced activity to 0.1 M sucrose and did not alter responses to 0.3 M sucrose [7].

These findings have practical implications for livestock feeding management. Feed and water temperatures can influence an animal's acceptance of rations and its ability to detect palatability differences. Producers who observe reduced feed intake during cold weather should consider that oral temperature adaptation may affect taste perception and feed acceptance.

Taste Bud Renewal and Stem Cell Niches

Taste bud cells have a limited lifespan and must be continuously replaced along with the papilla epithelium in which they reside. Research using genetic reporter strains in mice demonstrates that Lgr5 expression marks adult stem and progenitor cells for taste buds located in the posterior tongue, specifically the circumvallate and foliate papillae, but not the anterior tongue fungiform papillae [15].

During embryonic development, Lgr5 is broadly expressed in the epithelium of nascent circumvallate papillae and their trenches. During the first postnatal week, expression becomes concentrated within the ducts of adjacent von Ebner's salivary glands, coincident with the appearance of differentiated taste buds. In adult animals, the highest Lgr5 expression is found in excretory ducts, restricted to the outer basal layer of the bi-layered excretory zone [15].

Lineage tracing experiments show that Lgr5-positive ductal cells become labeled one day following Cre induction, prior to the appearance of descendant cells in taste buds. These findings support a role for Lgr5-positive ductal cells as stem cells for posterior tongue taste buds [15].

For livestock producers, this research underscores the importance of maintaining adequate nutrition during periods of oral injury or disease. The continuous renewal of taste bud cells requires functional stem cell populations, and conditions that damage the ducts of salivary glands may impair taste bud turnover and reduce an animal's ability to discriminate feed quality.

Tongue Function in Domestic Species

Ruminant Tongue Anatomy and Prehension

Cattle, buffalo, and other ruminants use their tongues as the primary organ for feed prehension. The tongue wraps around forage and draws it into the mouth, where it is positioned between the dental pad and lower incisors for shearing. The muscular coordination required for this process depends on intact tongue structure and innervation.

The tongue of ruminants is covered with filiform papillae that provide traction for gripping forage. The apex of the tongue is highly mobile and can be extended beyond the lips to grasp feed. Damage to the tongue apex, whether from trauma, foreign bodies, or disease, can significantly impair an animal's ability to prehend feed and maintain body condition.

Tongue Gangrene in Buffaloes

Tongue gangrene is a rare but serious condition in buffaloes with significant clinical and economic importance. A retrospective study of 44 buffaloes examined between January 2022 and November 2025 classified cases based on the extent of tongue loss, determined by the length of the excised gangrenous segment [4].

Affected buffaloes showed systemic illness with fever and dehydration, along with characteristic dry tongue gangrene presenting as discoloration, foul odor, loss of sensation, and a clear demarcation line. Most cases, 31 of 44, had a recent history suggestive of foot-and-mouth disease. The remaining cases were classified as suspected traumatic tongue injury in 9 of 44 cases, with 4 of 44 having no identified predisposing factor [4].

Deep tongue tissue cultures yielded bacterial growth in 24 of 44 cases and fungal growth in 3 of 44 cases. Rice straw samples from the batches fed to affected buffaloes yielded Fusarium-like fungi in 12 of 44 cases and clostridia-like organisms in 28 of 44 cases. Histopathology confirmed coagulative necrosis with vascular congestion, bacterial colonization, and neutrophilic infiltration [4].

Partial glossectomy was performed in all cases, and recovery was monitored for up to 24 weeks based on medical records [4]. This study demonstrates that tongue gangrene in buffaloes is frequently associated with foot-and-mouth disease and that surgical intervention with partial tongue removal can be a viable treatment option.

Actinobacillosis in Buffaloes

Ulcerated cutaneous actinobacillosis represents another tongue-related disease condition in buffaloes. A case report documents the presentation and management of this condition in a graded Murrah buffalo [21]. Actinobacillosis typically affects the tongue and associated oral tissues, causing granulomatous lesions that can interfere with prehension and swallowing.

Producers should monitor buffalo and cattle for signs of oral discomfort, including drooling, reduced feed intake, and visible tongue lesions. Early detection and veterinary consultation are essential for managing actinobacillosis and preventing progression to more severe disease.

Tongue Health Assessment in Livestock

Practical Examination Protocol

Farmers and livestock managers should incorporate tongue assessment into routine health checks. A systematic examination protocol includes the following steps:

1. Observe the animal at rest for signs of drooling, tongue protrusion, or abnormal jaw position
2. Monitor feed intake and prehension behavior during normal feeding periods
3. Examine the tongue visually when the animal opens its mouth, using appropriate restraint
4. Palpate the tongue for swelling, firm masses, or areas of reduced sensation
5. Assess tongue color and moisture, noting any pallor, cyanosis, or excessive dryness
6. Check for foreign bodies, lacerations, or ulcerations on the tongue surface
7. Document any abnormalities in the herd health record with dates and observations

Records and Measurements

Maintaining accurate records of tongue health observations supports early detection of disease and evaluation of treatment outcomes. Useful records include:

• Date of examination and animal identification
• Tongue appearance, including color, moisture, and symmetry
• Presence and location of any lesions, swellings, or discoloration
• Feed intake measurements before and after treatment
• Body condition scores at regular intervals
• Response to treatment and time to recovery
• Laboratory results when diagnostic testing is performed

For conditions such as tongue gangrene, measuring the length of the excised gangrenous segment provides objective data for classifying disease severity and comparing outcomes across cases [4].

Professional Escalation Criteria

Livestock managers should seek veterinary consultation when they observe any of the following:

• Tongue discoloration, particularly dark or black areas suggesting gangrene
• Foul odor emanating from the mouth
• Loss of tongue sensation or reduced tongue movement
• Fever accompanied by oral lesions
• Reduced feed intake lasting more than 24 hours
• Visible tongue swelling that interferes with prehension
• Multiple animals affected within a short time period

Early veterinary intervention is particularly important for conditions like tongue gangrene, where delayed treatment can increase the extent of tissue loss and worsen outcomes [4].

Tongue Function and Respiratory Health

Hypoglossal Nerve Activity and Airway Patency

The hypoglossal nerve controls the position and movements of the tongue. In animals with compromised upper airway anatomy, sleep-related hypotonia of the tongue and other pharyngeal muscles causes increased upper airway resistance or total upper airway obstructions, disrupting both sleep and breathing [10].

Hypoglossal nerve activity reaches its lowest point during rapid eye movement sleep, and obstructive episodes are longest and most severe during this sleep stage. Research using an in situ perfused working heart-brainstem rat preparation demonstrated that microinjections of the cholinergic agonist carbachol into the pons triggered depression of hypoglossal nerve activity with increased respiratory rate, a pattern similar to that observed during natural REM sleep [10].

These findings have relevance for livestock producers managing animals with brachycephalic conformation or other anatomical factors that predispose to upper airway obstruction. Animals with impaired tongue control or reduced hypoglossal nerve function may be at increased risk for respiratory compromise during sleep.

Tongue Strength and Bulbar Function

Tongue strength is a measurable indicator of bulbar sensorimotor function. Research using a rat model of Alexander disease, a neurodegenerative disorder associated with bulbar impairments including dysphagia, dysphonia, and dysarthria, demonstrated significantly reduced tongue force and press rates compared with wild-type controls [9].

Affected animals showed a decline in performance over time, indicating lingual weakness and reduced capacity for sustained performance. During mastication, affected animals required longer consumption times and more chewing events despite similar bite counts, reflecting inefficient oral processing. Videofluoroscopic swallow studies revealed prolonged oral-phase duration and an increased number of jaw cycles prior to swallow initiation [9].

For livestock producers, reduced tongue strength can manifest as difficulty prehending feed, increased feeding time, and reduced feed intake. Animals showing these signs should be evaluated for underlying neurological or muscular conditions.

Tongue Injuries and Wound Healing

Full-Thickness Wound Healing

Tongue injuries that result in full-thickness tissue loss present significant healing challenges. Research on full-thickness wound healing in irradiated rats demonstrated that chitosan-based biomaterials can alter wound healing to produce more regenerative tissue and fewer scars [5].

Wounds treated with a chitosan skin substitute showed the most re-epithelialization at 33.2 percent, the longest epithelial tongue at 1.62 mm, and the shortest migratory tongue distance at 7.11 mm. Scar size was significantly decreased for wounds treated with chitosan dermal substitute at 0.13 cm and chitosan skin substitute at 0.16 cm compared with a standard dressing at 0.45 cm [5].

While these findings come from rat models, they suggest that biomaterial dressings may have applications for managing tongue wounds in livestock. Producers should consult with veterinarians about appropriate wound management strategies for tongue injuries.

Neutrophil Response to Nerve Injury

The innate immune response to tongue nerve injury varies with age at the time of injury. Research in Sprague-Dawley rats examined the neutrophil response to transection of the trigeminal lingual nerve or gustatory chorda tympani nerve at 10, 25, or 65 days of age [11].

The neutrophil response to nerve transection performed at 25 or 65 days of age was minimal to non-existent at all time points examined. In contrast, a robust neutrophil response occurred on both the ipsilateral and contralateral sides of the tongue starting 12 hours after nerve transection performed at 10 days of age, continuing through 24 hours post-surgery, before returning to baseline quantities at 48 hours [11].

These findings indicate that the inflammatory response to tongue nerve injury differs substantially between young and mature animals. Producers managing young livestock with tongue injuries should be aware that the healing process may involve more pronounced inflammatory responses than in mature animals.

Tongue Disease and Cancer

Tongue Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Tongue squamous cell carcinoma is an aggressive malignancy with poor prognosis and limited therapeutic options. Research investigating the water extract of Andrographis paniculata demonstrated anti-tumor effects in tongue squamous cell carcinoma cell lines and in a xenograft-bearing mouse model [12].

The extract inhibited proliferation of Cal-27 and SCC25 cells and induced apoptosis in a concentration-dependent manner. Treatment promoted mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis by upregulating Bax and cleaved caspase proteins while downregulating Bcl-2. The extract also suppressed the Wnt/beta-catenin signaling pathway, reducing beta-catenin expression and its downstream targets CCND1, MYC, and JUN [12].

Five-week treatment significantly reduced tumor growth and angiogenesis without evident hepatic or renal toxicity in the mouse model. These findings suggest potential applications for herbal medicine as adjuvant therapy for tongue cancer, though clinical studies in livestock are needed [12].

Neuroimmune Interactions in Tongue Cancer

Intra-tumor nerve infiltration correlates with poor prognosis in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Research identified cancer cell-secreted PTHLH as a key regulator of the neuroimmune network in tongue squamous cell carcinoma [14].

Genetic ablation of PTHLH significantly altered the expression of neurotrophic factors essential for intra-tumoral nerve growth. While PTHLH knockout showed no significant anti-tumor response in vitro or in immunodeficient mice, it dramatically reduced tumor burden in immunocompetent hosts. Tumors with PTHLH deficiency showed enhanced immunoreactivity with increased CD8 and CD4 T cells alongside reduced immunosuppression with decreased FOXP3 regulatory T cells and PD-L1 expression [14].

These findings highlight the complex interactions between the nervous system and immune system in tongue cancer progression. For livestock producers, the presence of oral tumors warrants prompt veterinary evaluation and consideration of treatment options.

Comparative Tongue Morphology in Birds and Bats

Avian Tongue Structure

Birds exhibit diverse tongue morphologies adapted to their feeding strategies. Morphometric characterization of the long-legged buzzard Buteo rufinus tongue and heart provides baseline data for this raptor species [23]. The tongue structure in birds of prey reflects their carnivorous diet and the mechanical demands of tearing and swallowing prey.

For poultry producers, understanding normal avian tongue anatomy supports early recognition of abnormalities. Swelling, discoloration, or reduced tongue mobility in poultry can indicate infectious disease, nutritional deficiency, or traumatic injury.

Bat Tongue Adaptations

Bats show remarkable variation in tongue structure related to feeding ecology. Comparative anatomical observations of the tongue of the Japanese long-fingered bat Miniopterus schreibersi fuliginosus document species-specific features [25]. Fruit bats and nectar-feeding bats possess elongated tongues with specialized papillae for collecting liquid food sources.

The tube-lipped nectar bat represents an extreme example of tongue elongation, with a tongue approximately 1.5 times its body length. This adaptation allows the bat to access nectar from deep flowers that are inaccessible to other pollinators. The tongue features a grooved structure with brush-like tip that facilitates capillary action for nectar collection.

Comparative evaluation of tongue papillae in Egyptian mice, fruit bats, and long-eared hedgehogs demonstrates that papilla morphology correlates with dietary niche [24]. Species consuming liquid diets show reduced mechanical papillae and enhanced gustatory structures, while species consuming abrasive diets show the opposite pattern.

Tongue Function in Feed Evaluation

Olfactory and Gustatory Integration

Horses evaluate feed suitability using both smell and taste. Research investigating the influence of familiarity with the smell and taste of plants on horses' olfactory exploration demonstrated that horses explore herbs known by smell and taste less intensively than those initially unfamiliar [16].

Horses with more sensory experience with a plant, including both taste and olfactory experience, are often quicker to recognize plants based solely on the sense of smell in the future. The sex and type of horse, whether warmblood or pony, may influence responses toward herbs of different familiarity levels [16].

For livestock producers, these findings suggest that animals develop feed preferences based on prior sensory experience. Introducing new feeds gradually and allowing animals to become familiar with novel forages can improve acceptance and reduce feed waste.

Temperature Effects on Feed Acceptance

The temperature of feed and water can influence gustatory processing and feed acceptance. Research in mice demonstrated that the adapted temperature of oral epithelia influences gustatory responses [7]. Responses to sucrose were enhanced under warming conditions compared with cooling conditions.

For livestock producers in cold climates, providing warmed water and feed during winter months may improve feed intake and animal performance. Conversely, extremely hot feed or water may reduce acceptance and decrease consumption.

Common Failure Patterns in Tongue Health Management

Delayed Recognition of Tongue Disease

One of the most common failures in tongue health management is delayed recognition of disease. Tongue lesions may be subtle in early stages, and animals may continue to eat normally until the condition progresses significantly. Regular oral examination should be part of routine health monitoring for all livestock species.

Inadequate Record Keeping

Failure to maintain accurate records of tongue health observations can delay diagnosis and complicate treatment evaluation. Producers should document all oral examinations, including normal findings, to establish baseline data for individual animals and herds.

Incomplete Treatment Protocols

Tongue conditions often require prolonged treatment and follow-up. Partial glossectomy for tongue gangrene requires monitoring for up to 24 weeks to assess recovery [4]. Producers who discontinue treatment prematurely may observe incomplete healing or disease recurrence.

Ignoring Environmental Risk Factors

Tongue injuries and diseases may be associated with environmental factors such as feed quality and housing conditions. The presence of Fusarium-like fungi and clostridia-like organisms in rice straw samples from farms with tongue gangrene cases suggests that feed contamination may contribute to disease risk [4]. Producers should evaluate feed storage and handling practices when tongue disease occurs.

Welfare and Safety Considerations

Pain Management in Tongue Conditions

Tongue conditions can cause significant pain and distress in affected animals. Conditions such as tongue gangrene present with systemic illness, fever, and dehydration [4]. Producers should work with veterinarians to develop appropriate pain management protocols for animals with tongue injuries or diseases.

Biosecurity for Infectious Tongue Diseases

Foot-and-mouth disease is a highly contagious viral disease that can cause tongue lesions and contribute to conditions like tongue gangrene [4]. Producers should implement appropriate biosecurity measures to prevent introduction and spread of foot-and-mouth disease, including quarantine of new animals, disinfection of equipment, and restriction of visitor access.

Humane Euthanasia Considerations

In cases where tongue disease results in severe tissue loss or untreatable conditions, humane euthanasia may be the most appropriate welfare option. Producers should consult with veterinarians to determine when treatment is no longer in the animal's best interest and to ensure that euthanasia is performed humanely and in accordance with applicable regulations.

Limitations of Current Knowledge

Species-Specific Data Gaps

Much of the research on tongue function and disease comes from laboratory species such as rats and mice. While these studies provide valuable insights into fundamental biological mechanisms, direct extrapolation to livestock species requires caution. Producers should work with veterinarians to interpret research findings in the context of their specific species and production systems.

Limited Field Studies

Field studies of tongue disease in livestock are relatively limited. The retrospective study of tongue gangrene in Egyptian buffaloes provides valuable data, but additional research is needed to understand the epidemiology and optimal management of tongue conditions across different production systems and geographic regions [4].

Evolving Understanding of Tongue Stem Cells

Research on tongue stem cells is advancing rapidly, with recent studies identifying Lgr5-positive ductal cells as stem cells for posterior tongue taste buds [15]. As understanding of tongue regeneration improves, new therapeutic approaches for tongue injuries and diseases may emerge.

Frequently Asked Questions

How does a chameleon's tongue achieve such extreme projection distances?

The chameleon tongue operates as a ballistic system where the tongue skeleton leaves the body entirely during projection. Research on the imperial cave salamander, which projects its tongue up to 80% of body length, shows that muscle activation patterns change with prey distance. The buccal portion of the tongue-projector muscle activates first and for the longest duration, while the posterior muscle region applies force to the tongue skeleton. During extreme long-distance projection, all muscle regions activate simultaneously instead of in a wave pattern [6].

What causes tongue gangrene in buffaloes?

Tongue gangrene in buffaloes is frequently associated with foot-and-mouth disease. In a retrospective study of 44 buffaloes, 31 had a recent history suggestive of foot-and-mouth disease, 9 were classified as suspected traumatic tongue injury, and 4 had no identified predisposing factor. Affected animals showed fever, dehydration, and characteristic dry tongue gangrene with discoloration, foul odor, loss of sensation, and a clear demarcation line. Treatment involved partial glossectomy with recovery monitored for up to 24 weeks [4].

How does temperature affect taste perception in animals?

Temperature influences gustatory processing at the neural level. Research in mice demonstrated that responses to sucrose are enhanced under warming conditions compared with cooling conditions. Cooling sucrose following warm adaptation only marginally reduced activity to 0.1 M sucrose and did not alter responses to 0.3 M sucrose. These findings suggest that feed and water temperature can influence taste perception and feed acceptance [7].

What is the role of Lgr5-positive cells in tongue function?

Lgr5-positive ductal cells in von Ebner's salivary glands serve as candidate stem cells for turnover of posterior tongue taste buds. During embryonic development, Lgr5 is broadly expressed in the epithelium of nascent circumvallate papillae, but it becomes concentrated within the ducts of adjacent salivary glands during the first postnatal week. Lineage tracing experiments show that Lgr5-positive ductal cells become labeled one day following induction, prior to the appearance of descendant cells in taste buds [15].

How does tongue function affect breathing during sleep?

The hypoglossal nerve controls tongue position and movement. During rapid eye movement sleep, hypoglossal nerve activity reaches its lowest point, and obstructive episodes are longest and most severe. Research using a perfused rat brainstem preparation demonstrated that cholinergic stimulation can trigger depression of hypoglossal nerve activity with increased respiratory rate, a pattern similar to natural REM sleep [10].

What are the signs of tongue disease in livestock?

Signs of tongue disease in livestock include drooling, reduced feed intake, tongue protrusion, visible tongue lesions, swelling, discoloration, foul odor from the mouth, and loss of tongue sensation. Tongue gangrene presents with characteristic dry gangrene including discoloration, foul odor, loss of sensation, and a clear demarcation line. Affected animals may show systemic signs including fever and dehydration [4].

How do horses use smell and taste to evaluate feed?

Horses use smell as the first sense to determine feed suitability. Research demonstrated that horses explore herbs known by smell and taste less intensively than those initially unfamiliar. Horses with more sensory experience with a plant are often quicker to recognize plants based solely on smell in the future. Sex and type of horse may influence responses toward herbs of different familiarity levels [16].

What treatment options exist for tongue cancer in animals?

Research on tongue squamous cell carcinoma has identified potential therapeutic approaches including herbal medicine. The water extract of Andrographis paniculata inhibited proliferation of tongue cancer cells and induced apoptosis in a concentration-dependent manner. Treatment suppressed the Wnt/beta-catenin signaling pathway and inhibited epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Five-week treatment significantly reduced tumor growth without evident toxicity in a mouse model [12].

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References and Further Reading

• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
• Detection of PRRSV-1 in tongue fluids under experimental and field conditions and comparison of different sampling material for PRRSV sow herd monitoring.. Porcine health management, 2024.
• Retrospective study of tongue gangrene in Egyptian buffaloes and its surgical management.. Irish veterinary journal, 2026.
• Chitosan dermal substitute and chitosan skin substitute contribute to accelerated full-thickness wound healing in irradiated rats.. BioMed research international, 2013.
• Activation patterns of the tongue-projector muscle during feeding in the imperial cave salamander Hydromantes imperialis.. The Journal of experimental biology, 2004.
• Influence of stimulus and oral adaptation temperature on gustatory responses in central taste-sensitive neurons.. Journal of neurophysiology, 2015.
• Morphological investigation of the gills of the dusky grouper Epinephelus marginatus (Lowe 1834) using gross anatomy and scanning electron microscopy.. Microscopy research and technique, 2022.
• Behavioral characterization of bulbar sensorimotor function in a rat model of Alexander disease.. Behavioural brain research, 2026.
• REM sleep-like episodes of motoneuronal depression and respiratory rate increase are triggered by pontine carbachol microinjections in in situ perfused rat brainstem preparation.. Experimental physiology, 2011.
• Neutrophil responses are substantially prolonged and robust following early postnatal chorda tympani or lingual nerve transection.. 2026.
• &lt,i&gt,Andrographis paniculata&lt,/i&gt, Inhibits Tongue Squamous Cell Carcinoma via Regulating Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling and Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition.. 2026.
• Speech sound discrimination in background noise across the lifespan: a comparative study in Mongolian gerbils and humans.. 2025.
• Ablation of cancer cell secreted neuropeptide PTHLH/PTHrP provokes anti-tumor immunity in murine tongue squamous cell carcinoma.. 2026.
• Lgr5+ ductal cells of von Ebner's glands: Candidate stem cells for turnover of posterior tongue taste buds.. 2026.
• Horse Olfactory Exploration of Various Plants with Regard to Smell and Taste Familiarity.. 2026.
• Tongue function in the salamander Bolitoglossa occident alis.. Archives of Oral Biology, 1977.
• TONGUE FUNCTION IN THE SALAMANDER. 2003.
• Animal model of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in rats.. 2009.
• Why do satellite transmitters on emperor penguins stop transmitting?. Animal Biotelemetry, 2015.
• An unusual case of ulcerated cutaneous actinobacillosis in a graded Murrah buffalo - a case report.. 2015.
• Method for simulating electrothermochemical burn of upper gastrointestinal tract (versions). 2015.
• Morphometric characterization of Long-Legged Buzzard (Buteo rufinus) Tongue and Heart Caracterización. Revista Cientifica De La Facultad De Veterinaria, 2025.
• Comparative evaluation of the ultrastructural morphology and distribution of filiform and fungiform tongue papillae in Egyptian mice, fruit bats and long-eared hedgehogs. Anatomy and Cell Biology, 2020.
• Comparative Anatomical Observations of the Tongue of the Japanese Long-Fingered Bats, Miniopterus schreibersi fuliginosus. Okajimas Folia Anatomica Japonica, 1982.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.