Lemon Shark Senses and Coastal Navigation: How Electroreception Guides Migration

Lemon sharks navigate coastal habitats using a combination of electroreception, mechanoreception, olfaction, vision, and the lateral line system. Electroreception, mediated by the Ampullae of Lorenzini, allows lemon sharks to detect the weak electric fields produced by prey, predators, and conspecifics, and likely contributes to their ability to orient within coastal environments during migration. This article examines the sensory biology of lemon sharks, compares their sensory adaptations with those of other coastal shark species, and explains how these systems support navigation and migration in nearshore waters.

The Sensory Biology of Lemon Sharks

Lemon sharks belong to the genus Negaprion, with two recognized species: the sicklefin lemon shark (Negaprion acutidens) and the lemon shark (Negaprion brevirostris). Both species inhabit shallow coastal waters, including mangroves, seagrass beds, coral reefs, and estuarine environments. Their reliance on these habitats means their sensory systems are adapted for conditions where light penetration is variable, water clarity fluctuates, and structural complexity is high.

The skin of elasmobranchs, including lemon sharks, is the most extensive organ in vertebrates and is composed of two layers: the epidermis and the dermis. Sensory axons originating from the dorsal root ganglia innervate the skin mechanoreceptors in the dermis. Elasmobranchs, which appeared 380 million years ago, are characterized by rough skin composed of dermal denticles. Research on the mechanoreceptors in elasmobranch skin has identified structures with similar morphology to traditional mammalian and reptilian mechanoreceptors like Pacinian and Meissner corpuscles, though the presence of Pacinian corpuscles was observed in Batoidea (skates and rays) but not in the skin of a Selachimorpha Squalus shark [3]. This finding suggests that mechanoreceptive capabilities may vary among elasmobranch groups, with implications for how different species detect tactile stimuli in their environments.

For lemon sharks specifically, the sensory array includes several distinct systems that work together to provide a complete picture of the surrounding environment. These systems include the visual system, olfactory system, auditory system, lateral line system, and the electrosensory system. Each contributes to the shark's ability to detect prey, avoid predators, find mates, and navigate through coastal habitats.

Electroreception and the Ampullae of Lorenzini

The Ampullae of Lorenzini are specialized electroreceptors used by chondrichthyans for important biological functions [6]. These organs consist of jelly-filled canals that open to the surface through pores and terminate in sensory bulbs. The canals are distributed across the head of the shark, with the highest density in the rostral region. The jelly inside the canals has a high electrical conductivity, allowing weak electric fields to be transmitted from the pore opening to the sensory epithelium at the base of the canal.

The electrosensory system is one of two important non-visual sensory modalities, especially in low light environments [4]. For lemon sharks, which frequently hunt in turbid coastal waters and during crepuscular periods, electroreception provides a reliable means of detecting prey that may be hidden in sediment or obscured by poor visibility. The electric fields produced by living organisms arise from muscle contractions, heart activity, and ion gradients across epithelial tissues. These fields are extremely weak, typically in the range of microvolts per centimeter, yet elasmobranch electroreceptors are sensitive enough to detect them at close range.

The arrangement of peripheral sense organs in the electrosensory system may reflect comparable feeding strategies for detecting benthic prey [4]. Lemon sharks are benthic feeders that consume crustaceans, small fish, and mollusks. Their electroreceptive capabilities allow them to detect buried prey that would otherwise be invisible. The elongated rostrum of some elasmobranch species is likely used as a sensory probe, providing spatially-resolved information about minute hydrodynamic disturbances and electric fields of potential prey beneath the animal [4]. While lemon sharks do not have the extreme rostral elongation seen in some other species, their head morphology still supports an array of ampullary organs that provide directional information about electric field sources.

The Lateral Line System and Mechanoreception

The mechanosensory lateral line system complements the electrosensory system in detecting hydrodynamic stimuli. The lateral line consists of a series of neuromasts, which are mechanoreceptive hair cell complexes distributed along the head and body. These neuromasts detect water displacement, pressure gradients, and low-frequency vibrations, allowing the shark to sense water movement caused by prey, predators, and physical structures in the environment.

The lateral line and electrosensory systems are two important non-visual sensory modalities, especially in low light environments [4]. For lemon sharks navigating through mangrove prop roots, seagrass beds, and reef structures, the lateral line provides critical information about the proximity of physical objects. This is particularly important in turbid waters where visual cues are limited. The lateral line allows the shark to swim through complex habitats without colliding with structures, and it also enables the detection of prey movements from a distance.

Research on the morphological organization of the peripheral lateral line and electrosensory systems in deepwater chondrichthyans has revealed that the distribution, abundance, size, and microstructure of lateral line grooves and organs (neuromasts) and ampullary organs (pores, canals, and bulbs) vary among species [4]. These variations reflect different ecological niches and feeding strategies. For lemon sharks, the lateral line system is well developed to support their active hunting behavior in structurally complex coastal habitats.

Olfaction and Chemical Sensing

Olfaction plays a significant role in the sensory biology of lemon sharks. Sharks possess highly sensitive olfactory epithelia that can detect amino acids and other chemical compounds at extremely low concentrations. This chemical sensing capability allows lemon sharks to detect prey odors, locate potential mates, and recognize familiar habitats.

Chemical cues in the water can also provide navigational information. Coastal habitats have distinct chemical signatures influenced by freshwater input, vegetation, and biological activity. Lemon sharks may use these chemical gradients to orient within their home ranges and to navigate between different habitat types during seasonal migrations. The ability to detect and follow chemical gradients is particularly important in estuarine environments where freshwater and saltwater mix, creating complex chemical landscapes.

Vision in Coastal Waters

The visual system of lemon sharks is adapted for the light conditions typical of coastal habitats. Lemon sharks have relatively large eyes with a high density of rod photoreceptors, which enhance sensitivity in low light conditions. They also possess a tapetum lucidum, a reflective layer behind the retina that improves light capture and enhances night vision.

In clear coastal waters, vision contributes to prey detection, predator avoidance, and social interactions. However, in turbid conditions, visual cues become less reliable, and the shark must rely more heavily on other sensory modalities. The integration of visual information with electroreceptive, mechanoreceptive, and olfactory inputs allows lemon sharks to maintain situational awareness across a range of environmental conditions.

Sensory Integration and Navigation

The navigation abilities of lemon sharks depend on the integration of multiple sensory inputs. While electroreception provides information about electric fields in the immediate environment, it has a limited range, typically only a few centimeters to perhaps a meter depending on the strength of the electric field source. The lateral line extends this range somewhat, detecting hydrodynamic disturbances over distances of several body lengths. Olfaction can provide information over much longer distances, as chemical cues are transported by water currents.

For long-distance navigation, lemon sharks likely rely on a combination of olfactory cues, magnetic field detection, and possibly celestial cues. While the specific mechanisms of magnetic field detection in sharks remain an area of active research, the presence of magnetic particles in some elasmobranch species suggests this capability may exist. The integration of these long-range cues with short-range sensory information allows lemon sharks to navigate between foraging areas, nursery habitats, and mating grounds.

Sensory Adaptation Comparison: Lemon Shark vs. Other Coastal Sharks

Different coastal shark species have evolved sensory adaptations that reflect their specific ecological niches. The following table compares the sensory adaptations of lemon sharks with those of other coastal shark species.

The comparison reveals that while all coastal sharks share the basic elasmobranch sensory toolkit, the relative development of each system varies according to habitat and lifestyle. Lemon sharks show a balanced sensory profile suited to their complex coastal habitats, with strong electroreceptive and mechanoreceptive capabilities supporting their benthic foraging and habitat navigation.

Migration Patterns and Sensory Guidance

Lemon sharks exhibit complex migration patterns that vary by population and life stage. Juvenile lemon sharks typically remain in nursery habitats such as mangrove lagoons and shallow reef flats, while adults may undertake more extensive movements between foraging areas, mating grounds, and pupping sites. The sensory systems described above play critical roles in guiding these movements.

Research on the sicklefin lemon shark population in the Society Islands of French Polynesia has revealed important insights into the movement and breeding patterns of this species. A study of a naturally small island population of 40 adult sicklefin lemon sharks in Moorea, French Polynesia, conducted over 5 years, reconstructed the genetic relationships among individuals and determined the population's mating system. The genetic network illustrated that all individuals, except one, are interconnected at least through one first order genetic relationship. While this species developed a clear inbreeding avoidance strategy involving dispersal and migration, the small population size, low number of breeders, and the fragmented environment characterizing these tropical islands limits its complete effectiveness [7].

This research demonstrates that migration in lemon sharks serves a critical genetic function, facilitating gene flow between populations and reducing the risk of inbreeding. The sensory mechanisms that guide these migrations must therefore be reliable enough to allow sharks to navigate between island habitats separated by open water.

Nursery Habitat Use and Ontogenetic Shifts

Juvenile lemon sharks show distinct habitat preferences that change as they grow. Monitoring of juvenile sicklefin lemon sharks around Dongsha Atoll, a no-take marine reserve in the northern South China Sea, used dual unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to track seasonal variation in shark abundance, body size, spatial distribution, and environmental drivers. Thirteen synchronized UAV surveys were conducted during summer and winter, covering 20 locations categorized into three zones representing different levels of human impact. Results revealed stable overall abundance but strong fine-scale shifts between summer and winter. Northeastern sites showed sharp declines in shark sightings during winter, likely due to monsoonal exposure, while sheltered southern zones supported increased winter presence. Neonates were concentrated in lagoon habitats, whereas larger individuals occurred farther offshore and in seagrass areas, indicating ontogenetic habitat expansion. Human impact shaped demographic structure: low-impact areas hosted more and larger sharks, while smaller individuals and nearshore aggregation dominated high-impact zones [11].

These findings confirm the role of protected reef systems as critical nursery habitat for sicklefin lemon sharks and highlight the utility of UAV surveys for capturing spatiotemporal ecological patterns in remote ecosystems. The sensory systems of juvenile lemon sharks must support navigation between these different habitat zones as they grow and expand their home ranges.

Tracking Migration Through Vertebral Microchemistry

Understanding the migration patterns of coastal sharks has been advanced by the use of vertebral microchemistry. This technique analyzes the elemental composition of vertebral cartilage, which records environmental conditions experienced by the shark throughout its life. For species that move between habitats with different chemical signatures, such as coastal and offshore waters, vertebral microchemistry can reveal migration histories.

Research on the scalloped hammerhead shark Sphyrna lewini in the Mexican Pacific used vertebral microchemistry to infer migration patterns. Considering that S. lewini is a placental viviparous species, maternal supply of nutrients to the embryos might influence their vertebral microchemistry while in utero and provide intrinsic markers of the pregnant female environmental histories. Vertebral microchemistry was quantified using laser ablation inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Elemental signatures at vertebral edge were consistent between each pregnant female and her embryos, demonstrating the viability of employing in utero elemental signatures as a maternal tag of the gestation-related environmental histories. Analyses of the young-of-the-year in utero Sr:Ba and Pb:Ca profiles suggested that pregnant females either progressively migrated offshore before quickly returning to coastal habitats before term or remained nearshore during complete gestation [12].

While this research was conducted on scalloped hammerhead sharks, the same techniques can be applied to lemon sharks to understand their migration patterns. The elemental composition of lemon shark vertebrae can reveal whether individuals move between estuarine, coastal, and offshore habitats, and can identify the timing of such movements.

Satellite Tagging and Migration Monitoring

Satellite tagging has provided direct observations of shark migration patterns. Research on whale sharks in the waters of Botubarani Village, Bone Bolango Regency, Gorontalo Province, used satellite-based technology by installing satellite tags on two individual whale sharks. Tagging was carried out using the containment method using nets and boats. The results showed that the two individuals showed different migration patterns both spatially and temporally. The individual with ID code 53 was recorded as having migrated for 79 days and the individual with ID code 55 was recorded as having migrated for 54 days to return to Botubarani beach, Gorontalo. Based on monitoring results, the two individuals had different migration patterns but remained in the Tomini Bay waters [9].

While this research focused on whale sharks, the same satellite tagging approaches can be applied to lemon sharks to track their movements in coastal habitats. Such tracking data can reveal the sensory cues that guide migration by correlating movement patterns with environmental conditions such as water temperature, salinity, and current patterns.

Environmental Drivers of Migration

Migration patterns in coastal sharks are influenced by environmental factors including water temperature, prey availability, and habitat conditions. Research on the Mediterranean subpopulation of great white sharks investigated whether spatial changes in shark occurrences during the 21st century correspond with shifts in Atlantic bluefin tuna distribution and habitat conditions. Results revealed a clear redistribution of great white shark hotspots: historic coastal focal areas have diminished or disappeared, while offshore zones and the Aegean coast of Turkey have emerged as contemporary hotspots. These patterns appear to align closely with shifts in tuna feeding grounds and cooler sea surface temperatures below 18 degrees Celsius [8].

For lemon sharks, similar environmental drivers likely influence migration patterns. Water temperature affects metabolic rates and may trigger seasonal movements between warmer and cooler habitats. Prey availability, particularly the seasonal abundance of crustaceans and small fish, may also drive movements. The sensory systems of lemon sharks allow them to detect these environmental gradients and respond with appropriate movements.

Practical Assessment of Lemon Shark Sensory Biology

For researchers, conservation managers, and students studying lemon shark sensory biology, several practical approaches can be used to assess sensory function and its role in navigation.

Field Observation Protocols

Direct observation of lemon shark behavior in natural habitats can provide insights into sensory function. Observations should record the following parameters:

• Water clarity and light conditions during observed behaviors
• Distance at which sharks respond to prey, conspecifics, or potential threats
• Behavioral responses to different stimuli, such as bait, divers, or structures
• Time of day and tidal state during observations
• Habitat type and structural complexity of the observation site

These observations can reveal which sensory modalities are most active under different conditions. For example, if lemon sharks consistently detect prey at greater distances in clear water than in turbid water, vision may play a significant role in prey detection. Conversely, if detection distances remain constant across water clarity conditions, non-visual senses such as electroreception or olfaction may be primarily responsible.

Laboratory Assessment of Electroreception

Laboratory studies can assess the electrosensory capabilities of lemon sharks using controlled presentations of electric fields. These studies typically involve:

• Presenting sharks with artificial electric fields of varying strength and frequency
• Measuring behavioral responses such as orientation, approach, or feeding attempts
• Mapping the spatial distribution of ampullary pores on the head to predict sensitivity
• Testing the effects of environmental factors such as temperature and salinity on electroreceptive function

Such studies require specialized equipment and ethical approval, but they provide detailed information about the sensitivity and functional range of the electrosensory system.

Tagging and Tracking Studies

Acoustic and satellite tagging can reveal how lemon sharks use their sensory systems to navigate. Tracking data can be correlated with environmental conditions to identify the cues that guide movement. Key measurements include:

• Movement paths and speed during migration events
• Depth and temperature preferences during different phases of migration
• Associations with specific habitat features such as channels, reefs, or estuaries
• Timing of movements relative to tidal cycles, light conditions, and seasonal changes

These data can reveal whether lemon sharks use consistent routes during migration, which would suggest reliance on learned spatial information, or whether they follow environmental gradients, which would suggest reliance on sensory detection of cues.

Records and Measurements for Sensory Studies

Maintaining accurate records is essential for sensory biology research. The following measurements should be documented in any study of lemon shark sensory function:

These records allow researchers to compare sensory function across individuals, populations, and environmental conditions, and to identify the factors that influence navigation success.

Common Failure Patterns in Sensory Research

Research on lemon shark sensory biology faces several common challenges that can compromise data quality and interpretation.

Observer Effects

The presence of observers, whether divers, boats, or UAVs, can alter lemon shark behavior. Sharks may avoid areas with human activity, change their movement patterns, or exhibit stress responses that mask natural behaviors. UAV surveys can reduce this effect, as demonstrated in the Dongsha Atoll study where dual UAVs monitored juvenile sicklefin lemon sharks without direct human presence in the water [11]. However, even UAV presence can influence behavior if the sharks detect the aircraft.

Environmental Variability

Coastal environments are highly variable, with changes in water clarity, temperature, salinity, and current patterns occurring over short time scales. This variability can confound sensory studies by introducing uncontrolled variables. Researchers must carefully document environmental conditions during all observations and use statistical methods that account for environmental variability.

Equipment Limitations

Sensory recording equipment has inherent limitations. Underwater cameras have limited range and resolution in turbid water. Acoustic tags have limited detection ranges and may miss fine-scale movements. Electric field generators may not accurately replicate natural biological electric fields. Researchers must understand these limitations and interpret their data accordingly.

Sample Size Constraints

Many lemon shark populations are small, limiting the sample sizes available for research. The Moorea study of sicklefin lemon sharks monitored a population of only 40 adults [7]. Small sample sizes reduce statistical power and limit the generalizability of findings. Researchers should acknowledge these limitations and consider collaborative studies across multiple sites to increase sample sizes.

Welfare and Safety Considerations

Research on lemon shark sensory biology must prioritize the welfare of the animals and the safety of researchers. The following considerations apply:

Handling and Tagging

Sharks that are captured for tagging or sampling should be handled with care to minimize stress and injury. Researchers should use appropriate handling techniques, minimize air exposure, and ensure that sharks are fully recovered before release. Tagging procedures should be performed by experienced personnel using sterilized equipment.

Electric Deterrent Research

Research on electric deterrents has shown that personal electric deterrents can reduce shark bites from the three species responsible for the most fatal interactions. In Australia, bull, tiger, and white sharks are responsible for the highest number of bites and fatalities. Testing of two electric deterrents showed that the surf product reduced the probability of bites by 54% across all three species. The diving product had a similar effect on tiger shark bites with a 69% reduction but did not reduce the frequency of bites from white sharks, likely because the electrodes were placed further away from the bait. Electric deterrents also increased the time for bites to occur and the frequency of reactions and passes for all species tested. Neither product eliminated the risk of shark bites entirely [5].

This research has implications for both shark conservation and human safety. Electric deterrents provide a non-lethal strategy for reducing shark-bite risk while maintaining conservation objectives. However, the finding that deterrent effectiveness varies by species and product configuration highlights the need for continued research and product refinement.

Regulatory Compliance

Research on lemon sharks may require permits from relevant regulatory authorities. Researchers must ensure compliance with all applicable laws and regulations regarding the capture, handling, tagging, and sampling of protected species. Institutional animal care and use committees must approve all research protocols involving live animals.

Professional Escalation Criteria

Researchers and conservation managers should escalate concerns to appropriate authorities when certain conditions are observed. The following criteria indicate when professional escalation is warranted:

Population Declines

If monitoring reveals sustained declines in lemon shark abundance or recruitment, this should be reported to relevant conservation authorities. The Mediterranean great white shark subpopulation is likely in decline, though long-term trends remain uncertain due to opportunistic record-keeping, misidentifications, and changing observation effort [8]. Similar uncertainties can affect lemon shark population assessments, making it important to report any evidence of decline promptly.

Habitat Degradation

If lemon shark nursery habitats show signs of degradation, such as loss of mangrove cover, seagrass decline, or water quality deterioration, this should be reported to habitat management authorities. The Dongsha Atoll study demonstrated that human impact shapes demographic structure in lemon shark nurseries, with low-impact areas hosting more and larger sharks [11]. Protecting these habitats is essential for lemon shark conservation.

Bycatch Concerns

If lemon sharks are observed as bycatch in fisheries, this should be reported to fisheries management authorities. The ghost shark Chimaera monstrosa is commonly captured as by-catch in the bottom trawl fishery [6], and similar bycatch issues may affect lemon sharks in coastal fisheries. Bycatch data are essential for assessing the sustainability of fisheries and developing mitigation measures.

Unusual Mortality Events

If unusual mortality events are observed, such as mass strandings or disease outbreaks, these should be reported to relevant wildlife health authorities. Such events may indicate environmental contamination, disease emergence, or other threats that require investigation.

Limitations of Current Knowledge

Despite advances in understanding lemon shark sensory biology, significant knowledge gaps remain. The following limitations should be acknowledged:

Species-Specific Data

Much of the research on elasmobranch sensory biology has been conducted on species other than lemon sharks. The finding that Pacinian corpuscles were present in the skin of Batoidea but not in the skin of a Selachimorpha Squalus shark [3] illustrates that sensory structures can vary significantly among elasmobranch groups. Direct studies of lemon shark sensory structures are needed to confirm that findings from other species apply to Negaprion.

Ontogenetic Variation

Sensory capabilities may change as lemon sharks grow and move between habitats. The observation that neonatal sicklefin lemon sharks are concentrated in lagoon habitats while larger individuals occur farther offshore and in seagrass areas [11] suggests that sensory requirements may change with ontogeny. Longitudinal studies are needed to document these changes.

Environmental Context

The function of sensory systems depends on environmental context. The lateral line and electrosensory systems are particularly important in low light environments [4], but the relative importance of different sensory modalities in different habitats and conditions remains poorly understood for lemon sharks.

Anthropogenic Impacts

Human activities may interfere with lemon shark sensory function. Noise pollution, chemical contamination, and habitat modification can all affect sensory systems. The deepwater chondrichthyans studied for their lateral line and electrosensory systems remain vulnerable to anthropogenic disturbances [4], and similar vulnerabilities likely affect coastal lemon sharks.

Frequently Asked Questions

How do lemon sharks detect prey buried in sediment?

Lemon sharks use electroreception to detect the weak electric fields produced by buried prey. The Ampullae of Lorenzini are specialized electroreceptors used by chondrichthyans for important biological functions [6]. These organs can detect the electric fields generated by muscle contractions and ion gradients in prey animals, allowing lemon sharks to locate and capture prey that is hidden beneath the sediment surface.

What is the range of the lemon shark electrosensory system?

The effective range of electroreception is limited, typically extending only a few centimeters to perhaps a meter from the source of the electric field. The sensitivity of the Ampullae of Lorenzini allows detection of extremely weak electric fields, but the strength of biological electric fields diminishes rapidly with distance. For longer-range detection, lemon sharks rely on olfaction and the lateral line system.

How do lemon sharks navigate between nursery and adult habitats?

Lemon sharks likely use a combination of sensory cues to navigate between habitats. Olfactory cues can provide information about water chemistry over relatively long distances, while the lateral line system detects hydrodynamic features such as currents and waves. The integration of these cues with learned spatial information allows lemon sharks to navigate reliably between familiar habitats.

Do lemon sharks use magnetic fields for navigation?

The use of magnetic fields for navigation in lemon sharks has not been definitively confirmed. While some elasmobranch species possess magnetic particles that could support magnetic field detection, direct evidence for magnetic navigation in lemon sharks is lacking. Further research is needed to determine whether lemon sharks use magnetic cues for long-distance navigation.

How does water turbidity affect lemon shark sensory function?

In turbid water, visual cues become less reliable, and lemon sharks rely more heavily on non-visual senses. The lateral line and electrosensory systems are two important non-visual sensory modalities, especially in low light environments [4]. Lemon sharks can maintain effective foraging and navigation in turbid conditions by shifting reliance to these systems.

What is the role of the lateral line in lemon shark navigation?

The lateral line detects water displacement, pressure gradients, and low-frequency vibrations, allowing lemon sharks to sense water movement caused by prey, predators, and physical structures. This system is particularly important for navigating through complex habitats such as mangrove prop roots and reef structures where visual cues are limited.

How do lemon shark migration patterns affect genetic diversity?

Migration facilitates gene flow between populations and reduces the risk of inbreeding. Research on sicklefin lemon sharks in French Polynesia showed that this species developed a clear inbreeding avoidance strategy involving dispersal and migration, though the small population size and fragmented environment limits its complete effectiveness [7]. Maintaining migration corridors is therefore essential for genetic health.

Can electric deterrents protect swimmers from lemon sharks?

Electric deterrents have been shown to reduce shark-bite risk for some species, but effectiveness varies. Testing of two electric deterrents on bull, tiger, and white sharks showed that the surf product reduced the probability of bites by 54% across all three species, while the diving product reduced tiger shark bites by 69% but did not reduce white shark bites [5]. Neither product eliminated the risk of shark bites entirely, and specific data for lemon sharks are not available.

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References and Further Reading

• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
• The mechanoreceptors in hatchling and adult Elasmobranch skin.. 2024.
• The lateral line and electrosensory systems of two holocephalans.. 2025.
• Personal electric deterrents can reduce shark bites from the three species responsible for the most fatal interactions.. 2024.
• Sixth sense in the deep-sea: the electrosensory system in ghost shark Chimaera monstrosa.. 2022.
• Genetic Network and Breeding Patterns of a Sicklefin Lemon Shark (Negaprion acutidens) Population in the Society Islands, French Polynesia. PLoS ONE, 2013.
• Decreasing Trend of Great White Shark Carcharodon carcharias Records in the Mediterranean: A Significant Population Loss or Shifts in Migration Patterns?. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 2025.
• Preliminary Monitoring of Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus) Migration Patterns in the Waters Botubarani Village Gorontalo Based on Satellite Marker Monitoring. International Journal of Biological Engineering and Agriculture, 2024.
• Shark Tag Trail - Extrapolation Using Bezier Algorithm: Enhancing Understanding of Migration Patterns.. International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, 2024.
• Monitoring juvenile sicklefin lemon shark Negaprion acutidens in remote marine nurseries using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Scientific Reports, 2025.
• In utero elemental tags in vertebrae of the scalloped hammerhead shark Sphyrna lewini reveal migration patterns of pregnant females. Scientific Reports, 2020.
• New insights into the migration patterns of the scalloped hammerhead shark Sphyrna lewini based on vertebral microchemistry. Marine Biology, 2020.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.