Ground Nests: Animals That Build on the Earth's Surface

Ground nesting is a widespread reproductive strategy across birds, insects, reptiles, and mammals, where animals construct nests directly on or beneath the soil surface instead of in trees or elevated structures. This article examines the diversity of ground-nesting animals, their nest types, the adaptive advantages and predation risks of nesting on the ground, and the practical implications for land managers, farmers, and conservation professionals. The information draws on peer-reviewed studies of nest site selection, camouflage behavior, pollinator conservation, and invasive species management.

At a Glance: Ground-Nesting Species and Nest Characteristics

The table below summarizes representative ground-nesting species, their nest types, and key behavioral traits documented in the scientific literature.

The Diversity of Ground-Nesting Animals

Ground nesting occurs across a remarkable taxonomic range. Animal architecture includes underground burrows, constructed nests, and above-ground edifices, with examples found beneath the sea, on land, and in trees. Fossils indicate animals have constructed shelters for hundreds of millions of years, and architects span both invertebrates and vertebrates. The diversity of structures includes termite mounds, remodeled shells of social hermit crabs, subterranean tunnel systems of naked mole rats, decorated bowers of bowerbirds, and engineered dams of beavers. Termite mounds exceed skyscrapers in size relative to the architects that build them.

Ground-nesting species are not limited to a single ecological group. Birds, bees, wasps, ants, termites, turtles, and great apes all exhibit ground-nesting behavior. The common thread is the use of the earth's surface or shallow subsurface as the primary nesting substrate, whether through excavation, construction, or simple scrape formation.

Why Animals Choose the Ground for Nesting

Thermal and Microclimatic Benefits

Ground nesting can provide thermal advantages, particularly early in the breeding season. Observations of American robins nesting on the ground at a commercial tree farm in Illinois from 2018 to 2020 documented 24 nests placed on the ground instead of on species-typical arboreal substrates or human-made structures. This behavior was restricted to the early half of the breeding season and did not appear to be a response to competition. The researchers hypothesized that ground nesting may be an adaptive response to avoid exposure and colder temperatures at sites above the ground early in the breeding season, or a nonadaptive consequence of latent robin nest-placement flexibility.

For species in cold climates, ground nesting can provide access to geothermal warmth. Some isolated alkali bee populations endure inhospitably cold climates by nesting amid hot springs, demonstrating the thermal buffering capacity of certain ground substrates.

Camouflage and Predator Avoidance

Camouflage is vital for the survival of many prey species, including ground-nesting birds. Egg camouflage through background matching and disruptive coloration is often behaviorally mediated by selecting substrates that enhance egg camouflage. Research on Japanese quail demonstrated that breeding experience leads to improved background choices for egg background matching. However, substrate choice for disruptive coloration appeared genetically determined, as both experienced and naive birds chose backgrounds that enhanced egg disruptiveness regardless of experience.

Individual wild animals improve their camouflage through active background choice. Studies of nine species of ground-nesting birds in Zambia, including nightjars, plovers, and coursers, used image analysis and vision modeling to quantify egg and plumage camouflage to predator vision. Individual birds chose backgrounds that enhanced their camouflage, being better matched to their chosen backgrounds than to other potential backgrounds with respect to multiple aspects of camouflage. This occurred at all three spatial scales tested, from a few centimeters to 5 meters from the nest, and compared with other sites chosen by conspecifics. Ground-nesting birds actively choose backgrounds for their nests that enhance their camouflage, refining this choice across spatial scales.

Phenotype-environment matching extends across biomes. Specialist ground-nesting birds express phenotypes that better match the substrate composition and vegetation structure across large spatial scales of their own biome, whether tropical rainforest, taiga forest, dry forest, grassland, desert, or tundra. This camouflage effectiveness is measured relative to the visual system of raptor predators and at the appropriate distance at which detection may occur.

Olfactory Camouflage

Smell is a sensory modality rarely considered in birds, but evidence indicates olfaction is an important aspect of avian behavior and ecology. The uropygial gland produces an odoriferous secretion called preen oil that can differ seasonally and between the sexes. These differences are hypothesized to function in olfactory camouflage, minimizing detection by nest predators, and in intraspecific olfactory communication during breeding.

A systematic review found seasonal differences in preen oil chemical composition in 95% of species studied and sex differences in 47% of species. Seasonal differences were more likely in the incubating than non-incubating sex in ground-nesting species but were equally likely regardless of incubation strategy in non-ground-nesting species. This result supports the olfactory crypsis hypothesis, if ground nesters are more vulnerable to olfactorily searching predators than non-ground nesters.

Nest Types Constructed on or Below the Ground Surface

Scrape Nests

Many ground-nesting birds construct simple scrape nests, which are shallow depressions in soil, sand, or vegetation. The spotted thick-knee uses scrape nests in urban mosaic landscapes, adapting its nesting ecology to fragmented environments. Plovers, coursers, and nightjars also use scrape nests, often selecting substrates that enhance egg camouflage.

Buried Egg Chambers

Some species bury their eggs in excavated chambers. The maleo bird of Sulawesi uses communal nesting grounds where eggs are buried in sandy or volcanic soil. A population study at Saluki Village in Lore Lindu National Park found 32 active nests and 31 inactive nests at egg-laying locations, with a population density of 29.7 individuals per hectare at nesting sites. Four maleo predators were identified at the study site, including Varanus salvator, Spilornis rufipectus, Ictinaetus malayensis, and Falco species, with one potential predator, Macaca tongkeana, also present.

Sea turtles excavate egg chambers in beach sand. The Qilianyu Islands serve as the largest remaining green turtle nesting grounds in China, with nesting activity distributed across bottom, intertidal, and supratidal zones. Microplastic pollution in the supratidal zone was significantly higher than in bottom and intertidal zones, with plastic blocks and foam as the main types. The microplastics on the beach were mainly derived from the fragmentation of plastic debris, indicating secondary microplastics.

Underground Burrow Systems

Ground-nesting bees and wasps excavate underground burrow systems. Many solitary wasps and 70% of wild bees nest below ground and require protection during this long and crucial period of their lifecycle. Ground-nesting pollinators change soil texture directly by digging cavities, and 87% of all flowering plants require pollinators. Without pollinators, soil would lose ecosystem services provided by flowering plants, including litter, shade, roots for habitats, and erosion control.

The alkali bee is the only ground-nesting bee that has been successfully managed for crop pollination. In less than 80 years, it has become the world's most intensely studied ground-nesting solitary bee. It nests during torrid, parched midsummer amid arid valleys and basins of the western United States, yet it wants damp nesting soil. Building effective nesting beds requires understanding the hydraulic conductivity of silty nesting soils and its important interplay with specific soil mineral salts. The alkali bee remains the second most valuable managed solitary bee for US agriculture.

Constructed Ground Nests

Eastern chimpanzees construct ground nests for sleeping. A study conducted between 2004 and 2013 across more than 50,000 square kilometers in northern Democratic Republic of the Congo documented distinctive ground nesting behavior. Ground nests made up more than 1% of total nests at 15 of 20 survey regions, with 10.4% of Bili-Uéré chimpanzee nests being terrestrial. The frequency of ground nesting varied extensively between survey areas, ranging from 0 to 29% of nests. The occurrence of ground nests was positively associated with denser forests, herb patches, and light gaps.

Underground Termite Nests

The invasive conehead termite typically builds arboreal nests and foraging tunnels or epigeal nests on the ground surface. However, entirely and partially underground nests and foraging tunnels have been discovered in Broward County, Florida, where invasive conehead termite activity below ground is common. This expands understanding of habitat options for this adaptable species and alerts inspectors in invasive termite eradication programs to explore cryptic locations where nests of all sizes may hide.

Practical Assessment Steps for Land Managers

Land managers, farmers, and conservation professionals can assess ground-nesting activity on their properties using a systematic approach.

Step 1: Identify Potential Ground-Nesting Habitat

Walk the property during the breeding season and identify areas with suitable substrate conditions. Look for bare or sparsely vegetated ground, sandy patches, silty soils with appropriate moisture content, and areas with light gaps in forest cover. Denser forests, herb patches, and light gaps were positively associated with ground nesting in chimpanzees, and similar habitat features may attract other ground-nesting species.

Step 2: Document Nest Observations

Record the location of each nest using GPS coordinates or a marked map. Note the nest type, species if identifiable, substrate characteristics, and surrounding vegetation. For bird nests, record whether eggs or chicks are present and the stage of development. For bee nests, look for small mounds of excavated soil with entrance holes. For turtle nests, look for disturbed sand in supratidal zones.

Step 3: Assess Camouflage Effectiveness

For ground-nesting birds, evaluate whether the nest substrate matches the egg and plumage coloration. Research demonstrates that individual birds choose backgrounds that enhance their camouflage, so nests that appear conspicuous may indicate suboptimal site selection or habitat degradation. Consider photographing nests and comparing substrate and egg coloration using image analysis if detailed assessment is needed.

Step 4: Monitor Predation and Disturbance

Check nests at appropriate intervals to document predation events, disturbance from human activity, or environmental threats. The maleo study identified multiple predators at nesting grounds, including monitor lizards and birds of prey. Document any evidence of predation, including eggshell fragments, disturbed nest material, or tracks.

Step 5: Implement Protective Measures

Based on documented nesting activity, implement protective measures appropriate to the species and jurisdiction. For ground-nesting pollinators, avoid deep tillage and chemical applications during nesting periods. For sea turtle nesting beaches, establish regular cleaning protocols to remove plastic debris, particularly small fragments that generate secondary microplastics. For invasive species like conehead termites, explore cryptic locations where underground nests may hide.

Records and Measurements for Ground-Nesting Monitoring

Maintaining systematic records of ground-nesting activity supports informed management decisions. The following measurements are useful for monitoring programs.

Nest Density and Distribution

Count active and inactive nests within defined survey areas. The maleo population study used two approaches: direct observation outside nesting habitat using transect methods and active nest counts at nesting sites. This dual approach provided population density estimates of 29.7 individuals per hectare at egg-laying locations and 1.7 individuals per hectare outside nesting habitat.

Nest Survival Rates

Calculate nest survival using standardized methods. The Twite study on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau monitored 50 nests over two years and used Mayfield's method and program MARK to estimate daily nest survival rates. The study documented 121 eggs laid, 81 successfully hatched, and 79 fledglings surviving to leave the nest, with overall hatching success of 66.94%, fledging success among hatchlings of 97.53%, and overall offspring survival from eggs to fledglings of 65.29%.

Substrate Characteristics

Record soil type, moisture content, and mineral composition for ground-nesting bee habitats. Alkali bee management requires understanding the hydraulic conductivity of silty nesting soils and its interplay with specific soil mineral salts. Similar substrate measurements may inform management of other ground-nesting species.

Environmental Threats

Document environmental threats including microplastic pollution, chemical contamination, and habitat disturbance. The green turtle nesting ground study found microplastic abundance in the supratidal zone significantly higher than in bottom and intertidal zones, with polyethylene and polystyrene as predominant components. Regular cleaning of beach plastic debris, especially small fragments, was recommended to reduce secondary microplastic generation.

Common Failure Patterns in Ground-Nesting Management

Habitat Destruction Through Tillage

Deep tillage directly destroys ground-nesting pollinator nests. Many solitary wasps and 70% of wild bees nest below ground and require protection during this long and crucial period of their lifecycle. Recent research has demonstrated the extent of threats to which ground-nesting pollinators are exposed, including chemicals and deep tillage.

Inappropriate Substrate Management

Ground-nesting species have specific substrate requirements. Alkali bees want damp nesting soil despite nesting during torrid, parched midsummer conditions. Building effective nesting beds requires understanding the hydraulic conductivity of silty nesting soils and its important interplay with specific soil mineral salts. Failure to maintain appropriate soil moisture and mineral content leads to nest abandonment or reduced reproductive success.

Disturbance During Critical Breeding Periods

Ground nests are vulnerable to disturbance during incubation and chick-rearing periods. The American robin ground-nesting behavior was restricted to the early half of the breeding season, suggesting that disturbance during this period could have disproportionate impacts. Land managers should schedule activities that disturb soil or vegetation outside known nesting periods.

Invasive Species Overlooked in Cryptic Locations

Invasive species management programs may fail when nests are hidden in cryptic locations. The conehead termite constructs entirely and partially underground nests that are distinct from previously observed structures. Inspectors in invasive termite eradication programs must explore cryptic locations where nests of all sizes may hide.

Plastic Debris Accumulation on Nesting Beaches

Sea turtle nesting grounds face increasing microplastic pollution. The study of green turtle nesting grounds in China found that microplastics on the beach were mainly derived from the fragmentation of plastic debris, indicating secondary microplastics. Regular cleaning of plastic debris, especially small fragments, is recommended to reduce pollution and protect nesting habitat.

Welfare and Safety Considerations

Protecting Ground-Nesting Pollinators

Ground-nesting pollinators are part of soil biodiversity and require explicit protection. The Convention on Biological Diversity employs a habitat-oriented definition of soil biodiversity including all kinds of species living in soil. However, the Food and Agriculture Organization excludes ground-nesting pollinators by focusing on species directly providing four ecosystem services: nutrient cycling, regulation of water flow and storage, soil structure maintenance and erosion control, and carbon storage and regulation of atmospheric composition. Conservation professionals should advocate for explicit protection of ground-nesting pollinators within soil biodiversity conservation frameworks.

Managing Invasive Species Safely

Invasive species management requires attention to both efficacy and safety. The invasive yellow-legged hornet has spread across Europe following its accidental introduction into France in 2004, adversely affecting biodiversity, apiculture, pomiculture, viticulture, and human health. Current management relies predominantly on nest destruction, but manual removal is often logistically challenging and costly because nests are typically located high in trees, frequently necessitating vehicle-mounted lifts. Ground-based application of biocides using long injection lances is comparatively rapid and inexpensive, but in many countries, insecticides are not permitted because the products are not specifically authorized for hornet control.

Research evaluated the efficacy of activated charcoal for nest destruction in the yellow-legged hornet. Injection of 145 nests with 50 to 100 grams of activated charcoal resulted in emergency nest construction by surviving workers in only 3 of 145 cases, a rate of 2.1%. This was comparable to the rate following insecticide treatment of 2 of 136 cases, or 1.5%. Activated charcoal appears to be similarly effective to insecticide-based control while offering advantages in environmental compatibility, user safety, ease of handling, and legal applicability in Europe.

Understanding Ant Predation Dynamics

Ground-nesting ant species face predation from arboreal predators. The weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina attacks the ground-nesting ant Camponotus compressus in their natural habitats. Camponotus compressus are larger than the predator ant, so weaver ants have developed group attack strategies to capture prey individuals. Understanding these predation dynamics informs conservation of ground-nesting ant species and management of their habitats.

Limitations of Current Knowledge

Geographic and Taxonomic Gaps

Research on ground nesting is unevenly distributed across taxa and regions. The chimpanzee ground-nesting study noted that nesting on the ground was previously considered typical of gorillas but rare in most populations of chimpanzees, yet the Bili-Uéré population showed distinctive ground nesting behavior. This demonstrates that regional differences in nesting habits may be more common than previously recognized.

Behavioral Flexibility and Adaptation

Ground nesting may represent adaptive responses or nonadaptive consequences of behavioral flexibility. The American robin ground-nesting behavior was hypothesized to be either an adaptive response to avoid exposure and colder temperatures early in the breeding season or a nonadaptive consequence of latent nest-placement flexibility. Distinguishing between these possibilities requires additional research.

Mechanisms of Camouflage Choice

The mechanisms controlling background choice for egg camouflage remain incompletely understood. Several mechanisms have been suggested, including genetic linkage between background preferences and egg coloration, learning egg appearances from previous breeding attempts, and imprinting on visual backgrounds during early life. Research on Japanese quail demonstrated that breeding experience leads to improved background choices for egg background matching, but substrate choice for disruptive coloration appeared genetically determined.

Olfactory Communication Complexity

Evidence for the functions of seasonal variation and sex differences in preen oil remains limited. Direct evidence for the putative functions of olfactory camouflage and intraspecific olfactory communication is mixed, with some studies finding differences and others not. The data do not currently allow disentangling of the olfactory crypsis and sex semiochemical hypotheses.

Professional Escalation Criteria

Land managers and conservation professionals should escalate concerns to appropriate authorities or specialists under the following circumstances.

Endangered Species Observations

If ground-nesting activity involves endangered or protected species, contact the relevant wildlife authority. The maleo bird is designated as a protected animal because its population in the wild is decreasing and its conservation status is in the endangered category. Ongoing and periodic studies of the maleo population are concrete steps that can be taken to increase the population.

Invasive Species Detection

If invasive species are detected in cryptic or underground locations, contact invasive species eradication programs or pest management professionals. The conehead termite is an invasive species in New Guinea and Florida, and effective approaches for treating underground activity require specialized knowledge.

Chemical or Contamination Threats

If ground-nesting habitat is threatened by chemical contamination or microplastic pollution, document the threat and contact environmental protection authorities. The green turtle nesting ground study recommended strengthening regular cleaning of plastic debris on the beach, especially the removal of small plastic debris, to reduce pollution from secondary microplastics.

Unexplained Nest Failure

If ground-nesting populations experience unexplained nest failure or population decline, consult with wildlife biologists or conservation specialists. Systematic monitoring using standardized methods, such as Mayfield's method and program MARK, can help identify patterns and causes of nest failure.

Frequently Asked Questions

What animals build nests on the ground?

Ground-nesting animals include many bird species such as plovers, nightjars, coursers, thick-knees, and some robins, plus reptiles like sea turtles and the maleo bird, insects including 70% of wild bees and many solitary wasps, termites, ants, and mammals such as eastern chimpanzees. These species construct nests directly on the soil surface, excavate underground burrows, or bury eggs in excavated chambers.

Why do some birds nest on the ground instead of in trees?

Ground nesting can provide thermal advantages early in the breeding season, as observed in American robins that nested on the ground at a predator-rich commercial tree farm. The behavior was restricted to the early half of the breeding season and may be an adaptive response to avoid exposure and colder temperatures above the ground. Ground nesting also allows birds to select substrates that enhance egg camouflage, improving concealment from predators.

How do ground-nesting birds choose nest sites?

Ground-nesting birds actively choose backgrounds that enhance their camouflage. Research on nine species in Zambia demonstrated that individual birds chose backgrounds better matched to their eggs and plumage than other potential backgrounds, at scales from a few centimeters to 5 meters from the nest. Breeding experience improves background choice for egg matching, while disruptive coloration choice appears genetically determined.

What threats do ground-nesting pollinators face?

Ground-nesting pollinators face threats from chemicals and deep tillage, which destroy underground nests. Many solitary wasps and 70% of wild bees nest below ground and require protection during this long and crucial period of their lifecycle. Conservation professionals should advocate for explicit protection of ground-nesting pollinators within soil biodiversity conservation frameworks.

Can ground-nesting bees be managed for crop pollination?

The alkali bee is the only ground-nesting bee that has been successfully managed for crop pollination. It is the world's most intensely studied ground-nesting solitary bee and the second most valuable managed solitary bee for US agriculture. Successful management requires understanding the hydraulic conductivity of silty nesting soils and its interplay with specific soil mineral salts.

What animals build nests in cars?

The approved evidence sources do not document animals building nests in cars. Ground-nesting animals typically select natural substrates such as soil, sand, or vegetation. If animals are found nesting in vehicles, this likely represents opportunistic use of sheltered spaces instead of a documented ground-nesting behavior pattern.

How does camouflage work for ground-nesting birds?

Camouflage works through background matching and disruptive coloration. Egg camouflage via background matching and disruptive coloration is often behaviorally mediated by selecting substrates that enhance egg camouflage. Predator vision models show that ground-nesting birds express phenotypes that match the substrate composition and vegetation structure of their biome, effective at the distance at which detection by raptor predators may occur.

What should land managers do if they find ground nests?

Land managers should document the location, nest type, species if identifiable, and substrate characteristics. They should avoid disturbing the area during critical breeding periods, implement protective measures appropriate to the species and jurisdiction, and escalate concerns to wildlife authorities if endangered species or invasive species are involved. Regular monitoring using standardized methods supports informed management decisions.

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References and Further Reading

• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
• Ground nesting by arboreal American robins (Turdus migratorius).. Ecology and evolution, 2022.
• Factors affecting nest height and ground nesting behaviour in Eastern chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) of the northern Democratic Republic of the Congo.. Folia primatologica, international journal of primatology, 2023.
• Ground-nesting birds learn egg appearance to guide background choice for camouflage.. Current biology : CB, 2024.
• Regard and protect ground-nesting pollinators as part of soil biodiversity.. Ecological applications : a publication of the Ecological Society of America, 2022.
• Zur jagdstrategie einiger orientalicher Leptogenys-arten (Formicidae: Ponerinae).. Oecologia, 1975.
• Animal architecture.. Current biology : CB, 2021.
• The Extraordinary Alkali Bee, Nomia melanderi (Halictidae), the World's Only Intensively Managed Ground-Nesting Bee.. Annual review of entomology, 2024.
• Olfactory camouflage and communication in birds.. Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 2022.
• Activated Charcoal: A Highly Potent Legal Alternative for &lt,i&gt,Vespa velutina&lt,/i&gt, Nest Destruction.. 2026.
• Activated Charcoal: A Highly Potent Legal Alternative for Vespa velutina Nest Destruction. 2026.
• Breeding Biology of the Twite &lt,i&gt,Linaria flavirostris&lt,/i&gt, in the North-Eastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, with Special Reference to Life-History Variation Across Latitudes and Altitudes.. 2026.
• Underground Nests and Foraging Activity of Invasive Conehead Termites (&lt,i&gt,Nasutitermes corniger&lt,/i&gt,, Blattodea: Termitidae).. 2025.
• Colony demographics shape nest construction in &lt,i&gt,Camponotus fellah&lt,/i&gt, ants.. 2026.
• Strategy on the predation of arboreal weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabricius) on a ground nesting ant Camponotus compressus (Fabricius). ENTOMON, 2025.
• Phenotype-environment matching in ground-nesting birds across and within large-scale biomes. bioRxiv, 2026.
• Microplastic Distribution Characteristics and Sources on Beaches That Serve as the Largest Nesting Ground for Green Turtles in China. Toxics, 2024.
• The Population Study of Maleo Bird (Macrocephalon maleo) in The Nesting Ground of Saluki Village, Lore Lindu National Park. International Journal For Multidisciplinary Research, 2023.
• Improvement of individual camouflage through background choice in ground-nesting birds. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 2017.
• Sea turtles in the southeast United States: nesting activity as derived from aerial and ground surveys, 1982.. Herpetologica, 1985.
• Facets of the nesting ecology of a ground-nesting bird, the Spotted Thick-knee, in an urban mosaic landscape. Global Ecology and Conservation, 2023.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.