Dung Beetles in Ecosystems: Their Role and Importance

Dung beetles are a group of decomposer insects that process vertebrate dung across grasslands, forests, and agricultural landscapes. Their tunneling, rolling, and dwelling behaviors drive nutrient cycling, soil aeration, seed dispersal, and parasite suppression. This article explains their ecological functions, life history, responses to land use change, and practical relevance for farmers, researchers, and land managers. The content draws on peer-reviewed studies published through 2025, with emphasis on measurable outcomes and management decisions.

What Dung Beetles Do in Ecosystems

Dung beetles belong primarily to the superfamily Scarabaeoidea, with functional groups classified by their nesting and feeding strategies. The three main functional groups are tunnelers (paracoprids), rollers (telecoprids), and dwellers (endocoprids). Tunnelers bury dung directly beneath the pat, rollers form dung balls and roll them away from the source, and dwellers breed within the dung pat itself. Each strategy affects soil and nutrient dynamics differently.

A 2023 trait-based framework published in the Journal of Animal Ecology identified 66 dung beetle traits relevant to environmental responses and ecosystem effects, organized into six categories: morphology, feeding, reproduction, physiology, activity, and movement. The same framework documented 136 trait-response relationships and 77 trait-effect relationships, showing that no single trait category explains how beetles respond to stressors or influence ecological processes. This means management decisions should consider the whole community instead of individual species.

Dung beetles influence nutrient cycling, bioturbation, plant growth, seed dispersal, other dung-based organisms, and parasite transmission. Some species also contribute to pollination and predation. The trait-based review confirmed that dung relocation behavior during nesting or feeding connects multiple trait categories, making it a central feature of their ecological impact.

Ecosystem Services Provided by Dung Beetles

Nutrient Cycling and Soil Fertility

Dung removal by macrofauna such as dung beetles is an important process for nutrient cycling in pasturelands. A 2023 study in Nature Communications examined dung removal in 38 pastures worldwide, comparing low-intensity and high-intensity cattle grazing regimes. The researchers found that dung removal increased with species richness across sites, while functional diversity consistently enhanced dung removal within sites, independent of cattle grazing intensity or climate. This finding indicates that maintaining a functionally diverse dung beetle community supports decomposition and nutrient cycling even under intensified cattle stocking rates.

The practical implication for farmers is that pasture management should aim to preserve multiple dung beetle functional groups. Monocultures of a single beetle species provide less reliable dung removal than mixed communities. When planning rotational grazing or manure management, consider whether the local beetle community includes tunnelers, rollers, and dwellers.

Soil Aeration and Bioturbation

Tunneler dung beetles move substantial amounts of soil while constructing brood chambers beneath dung pats. This bioturbation improves soil structure, water infiltration, and root penetration. A 2022 study in New Forests examined Mediterranean silvopastoral systems called dehesas in southern Spain, where scattered oaks grow in grassland used for livestock rearing. The researchers found that tunneler dung beetles dominated their records and contributed to passive acorn burial through soil movement. This burial protected acorns from rodent predation, desiccation, and other damage, significantly improving oak seedling establishment.

The study concluded that cattle manure presence improves oak seedling establishment through bioturbation-mediated acorn burial. For silvopastoral systems, rotational livestock management that distributes dung across the landscape can support both dung beetle activity and tree regeneration.

Seed Dispersal

Dung beetles contribute to seed dispersal through two mechanisms. First, seeds passing through livestock digestive systems are deposited in dung, and beetles moving or burying that dung relocate the seeds. Second, as shown in the dehesa study, beetle tunneling activity can passively bury seeds such as acorns, protecting them from predators. The relative importance of these mechanisms varies by beetle functional group and seed size.

Parasite and Pest Suppression

Dung beetle activity reduces populations of dung-breeding pests and parasites by removing or burying the dung that serves as their breeding habitat. A 2021 review in Environmental Entomology examined dung beetle introduction programs in Australia, New Zealand, and North America, where exotic beetles were imported to accelerate cattle dung degradation on pastures. The review provided a list of pest and parasite species whose populations can be reduced by dung beetle activity, including dung-breeding flies and livestock parasites.

The same review identified 37 introduced and 47 adventive dung beetle species established in the Antipodes and North America, with exotic species dominating dung beetle assemblages in pasture habitats. Climatic and edaphic matches, founding population size, abiotic and biotic stressors, and release timing were critical determinants of introduction success.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Dung

Cattle farming is a major source of greenhouse gases, and dung pats contribute to emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. A 2017 study in PLOS ONE used closed chamber systems to measure gas fluxes from cattle dung pats with different dung beetle assemblages. The study targeted four species: a pat-dwelling species, a roller, a large tunneler, and a small tunneler, across six experimental treatments and two controls.

The presence of beetles significantly affected gas fluxes, but species contributed unequally. All beetle treatments reduced total cumulative carbon dioxide flux compared to beetle-free dung, and the three most abundant species reduced nitrous oxide flux. However, the large tunneler Copris lunaris significantly increased methane flux, a potential disservice linked to its nesting strategy of constructing large brood balls. When fluxes were summed into carbon dioxide equivalents, dung with beetles emitted less greenhouse gas than beetle-free dung, with the mix of the three most abundant species providing the highest reduction at 32 percent.

This research shows that dung beetle community composition matters for greenhouse gas outcomes. Farmers seeking to reduce emissions from manure should recognize that diverse beetle communities generally perform better than single-species populations.

Life Cycle and Functional Traits

Dung beetles undergo complete metamorphosis with egg, larval, pupal, and adult stages. Adults locate dung using olfactory cues, with volatile compounds guiding their behavioral preferences. A 2025 review in Entomologia Generalis examined volatile-mediated behavioral preferences in dung beetle chemical ecology, and a 2024 chapter in Studies in Natural Products Chemistry addressed potential applications of dung beetle bioactive compounds. These chemical ecology studies inform both basic understanding and applied uses such as trap design and biocontrol.

Nesting behavior varies by functional group. Tunnelers dig shafts beneath the dung pat and pack dung into brood masses. Rollers form dung balls and roll them away from the pat before burying them. Dwellers complete their life cycle within the dung pat itself. A 2024 review in Neotropical Entomology examined coprophagous insects in arid and semi-arid rangelands, documenting 364 Scarabaeoidea species worldwide. The review found that endocoprid (dwelling) strategies predominated in colder and drier settings, while paracoprid (tunneling) and telecoprid (rolling) strategies were more common in warmer, more humid environments.

Temperature and moisture strongly influence beetle activity. A 2026 dataset from Terceira Island in the Azores documented year-round monthly sampling of dung-associated arthropods in two cattle pastures. The dataset recorded 13,882 individuals across 96 sampling events, with activity strongly seasonal in temperate systems, driven by temperature and moisture and reshaped by pasture management such as changes in grazing regimes and dung availability.

Dung Beetles and Land Use Change

Forest Disturbance and Habitat Loss

Dung beetles are sensitive to changes in vegetation structure and land use. A 2022 study in the Journal of Animal Ecology examined mammal-dung beetle interaction networks across an environmental disturbance gradient in tropical forests, from primary forest to plantations. Mammal diversity changed only slightly across the gradient, remaining high even in oil palm plantations and fragmented forest. Dung beetle species richness, however, declined in response to lower above-ground carbon density and was particularly low in plantations and the most disturbed forest sites.

Three of five network metrics were significantly affected by changes in dung beetle species richness and carbon density, but mammal diversity was not an important predictor of network structure. The interaction networks remained structurally and functionally similar across the gradient, only becoming simplified in the most disturbed sites. The authors suggested that high mammal diversity combined with generalist feeding patterns of dung beetles confers resilience to these networks, and they highlighted the importance of protecting logged and fragmented forests to maintain interaction networks and prevent extinction cascades.

A 2024 study in Urban Ecosystems examined forest-dwelling dung beetles in Amazonian urban landscapes across 38 sites in six urban regions. Landscapes with greater forest cover showed greater beetle abundance and longer horns in Dichotomius boreus males. Cities with more forest cover had larger individuals than those with less forest cover. The study concluded that forested areas in urban landscapes are key habitat for maintaining dung beetle populations, with a strong relationship between landscape forest cover and beetle condition.

Agricultural Intensification

The effects of grazing intensification on dung beetles are heterogeneous. The 2023 Nature Communications study found that intensification either diminished or increased dung beetle species richness, functional diversity, and dung removal rates depending on the site. This variability means that local assessment is necessary before assuming that intensification harms beetle communities.

A 2019 study in VNU Journal of Science examined Coprini dung beetles in tropical karst ecosystems of Pu Luong Nature Reserve in Vietnam, comparing meadows, 35-year-old secondary forests, and primary forests. Species richness, abundance, and biomass were significantly higher in forest habitats than in meadows. Ground vegetation cover, soil clay content, and tree diameter were important factors structuring Coprini communities. Notably, secondary forests after 35 years of regrowth showed similarities to primary forests in species richness, abundance, and biomass, offering hope for community recovery during forest succession.

Conservation of Rare Species

Some dung beetle species have narrow habitat requirements and face conservation threats. A 2025 study in the Journal of Forestry Science and Technology assessed two recently described Synapsis species in karst ecosystems of Northern Vietnam. Synapsis puluongensis demonstrated a restricted range, small population size, and fewer than five known locations, but insufficient data from adjacent ecosystems prevented conclusive status determination, suggesting a Data Deficient assessment. Synapsis horaki was newly recorded in Phia Oac-Phia Den National Park, but its population remains poorly understood.

Habitat degradation from deforestation, limestone quarrying, and agricultural expansion poses significant threats to both species. The authors recommended protecting primary karst forests, expanding protected areas, restoring degraded habitats, and promoting sustainable land use practices.

Dung Beetle Introductions and Invasive Species

Dung beetle introduction programs have a long history in Australia, New Zealand, and North America, where exotic species were imported to accelerate cattle dung degradation and control dung-breeding pests. The 2021 Environmental Entomology review documented the history and current status of these programs, noting that new introductions continue. The review identified climatic and edaphic matches, founding population size, abiotic and biotic stressors, and release timing as critical determinants of success.

A 2020 study in PeerJ examined the invasive potential of introduced dung beetles, identifying four species as the most successful invaders globally: Digitonthophagus gazella, Onthophagus taurus, Euoniticellus intermedius, and Aphodius fimetarius. Each species has different natural history traits that increase fitness:

• Digitonthophagus gazella has high fecundity, spreading ability, rapid location and colonization of fresh dung, and a broad thermal window.
• Onthophagus taurus has morphological plasticity, high fecundity, high brood survival due to biparental care, and adaptation to extreme thermal and moisture conditions.
• Euoniticellus intermedius has remnant-dung feeding abilities, a wide thermal window functioning best at upper temperatures, and successful breeding at extremely low soil moisture.
• Aphodius fimetarius is small, has high breeding and dispersal abilities, and adapts to lower thermal conditions.

The study noted that introduction programs provided exotic species with opportunities to cross natural barriers and spread beyond their native ranges. Land managers considering dung beetle introductions should weigh the intended benefits against the risk of establishing invasive populations that may outcompete native species.

Dung Beetles in Livestock Production Systems

Arid and Semi-Arid Rangelands

Pastoralism dominates agricultural activity in arid and semi-arid ecosystems, and the interaction between coprophagous insects and livestock is a key but undervalued topic in rangeland management. The 2024 Neotropical Entomology review documented 364 Scarabaeoidea species associated with livestock in these regions. Domestic animal species are currently key components promoting this interaction, meaning ecological processes involving coprophagous fauna occur in production systems under human influence.

The review emphasized that livestock and rangeland management in arid and semi-arid environments should formally include dung beetle interactions in planning. This includes considering how grazing intensity, stocking rates, and dung availability affect beetle communities and their ecosystem services.

Pasture Management Decisions

Farmers can support dung beetle populations through several management decisions:

1. Maintain year-round dung availability where possible, since beetles require fresh dung for feeding and breeding.
2. Avoid or minimize broad-spectrum veterinary chemicals that harm dung beetles. The 2025 PeerJ review of dung beetle research found that publications on the effect of veterinary chemicals showed the largest drop over time, but the topic remains relevant.
3. Preserve field margins, hedgerows, and nearby natural habitats that provide refuge for beetle populations.
4. Use rotational grazing to distribute dung across pastures instead of concentrating it in small areas.
5. Monitor dung removal rates as an indicator of beetle activity and pasture health.

Grazing Intensification Tradeoffs

The 2023 Nature Communications study found that intensified cattle stocking rates do not necessarily eliminate dung beetle ecosystem services when a functionally diverse community inhabits the landscape. This finding supports management approaches that maintain habitat heterogeneity within intensively grazed pastures. However, the heterogeneous impacts of intensification across sites mean that local monitoring is essential.

Symbiotic Relationships and Gut Microbiota

Dung beetles host a range of symbiotic organisms that affect their development and ecological function. A 2024 study in Ecology and Evolution examined sexually transmitted mutualist nematodes (Diplogastrellus monhysteroides) associated with Onthophagus beetles. The nematodes are present on the genitalia of male and female beetles, transmitted horizontally during mating, and passed vertically to offspring during oviposition.

Rearing three relatively distantly related dung beetle species with and without nematodes, the researchers found that nematode presence benefited body size but not development time or survival across all three species. No difference was found in the benefit to male compared to female beetles. This study highlights the role of sexually transmitted mutualists in dung beetle evolution and ecology.

A 2025 study in PLOS ONE examined gut microbiota of two edible dung beetle species from Kenya: Cetonia aurata and the rhinoceros beetle Oryctes sp. The most abundant bacterial phyla in C. aurata were Firmicutes at 42.10 percent and Bacteroidota at 32.50 percent, while Oryctes sp. had higher levels of Proteobacteria at 35.00 percent, Actinobacteriota at 11.40 percent, and Desulfobacterota at 7.40 percent. Fungal communities were dominated by Lecanoromycetes at 92.60 percent in Oryctes sp. and Saccharomycetes at 92.60 percent in C. aurata.

Pathways related to nitrogen and carbon degradation were predicted in bacteria including Bacillus, Pseudomonas mosselii, and Proteiniphilum. The study suggested that gut bacteria and fungi from dung beetle larvae could serve as bio-resources for waste pollution elimination, with potential applications in functional foods, dietary supplements, and therapeutic products.

Research Trends and Knowledge Gaps

A 2025 study in PeerJ analyzed 4,145 peer-reviewed articles on dung beetle research published from 1930 to 2024. The literature splits into three distinct discourses: agricultural and biological topics, ecological topics, and taxonomic topics. Publications on the effect of veterinary chemicals and nesting behavior showed the largest drop over time, while articles relating to ecosystem function rose from low presence before the 2000s to become the most prevalent topic in the last two decades.

Research is global but dominated by Europe and North America. Research from South America, Africa, and Australia ranges wider in topics. Temperate and tropical mixed forests, grasslands, savannas, and shrublands dominated the corpus, as expected for a group directly associated with large mammals.

The review noted that ecosystem service provision is becoming more important and dominant in the literature globally. This trend reflects growing recognition that dung beetles provide measurable benefits to agriculture and natural ecosystems.

At a Glance

Practical Assessment of Dung Beetle Activity

Field Observation Methods

Land managers can assess dung beetle activity through systematic observation. The Azores dataset provides a standardized approach using dung-baited pitfall traps deployed for two to four days per site per month. For farm-level assessment, simpler methods include:

1. Mark fresh dung pats and check them at 24, 48, and 72 hours for signs of beetle activity such as tunnels, removal, or crumbling.
2. Dig beneath pats to check for brood chambers and tunneling depth.
3. Conduct pitfall trapping during warm, active periods to inventory species present.
4. Record dung removal rates as a percentage of pat volume over time.

Records and Measurements

Maintain records of dung beetle observations alongside pasture management data. Useful measurements include:

• Dung removal rate per pat over time
• Number of beetle species observed per pasture
• Functional group representation (tunnelers, rollers, dwellers)
• Seasonal activity windows
• Soil conditions at observation sites
• Grazing intensity and stocking rates
• Veterinary chemical applications and timing

These records allow managers to detect changes in beetle communities and link them to management decisions.

Common Failure Patterns

Several patterns indicate dung beetle community problems:

• Dung pats persisting for weeks without visible tunneling or removal
• Absence of beetles during warm, moist periods when activity should peak
• Dominance by a single species or functional group
• Declining dung removal rates over successive seasons
• Presence of large fly populations breeding in dung

When these patterns appear, investigate potential causes including veterinary chemical residues, habitat loss, soil compaction, or extreme weather events.

Limitations and Knowledge Gaps

Dung beetle research has geographic and thematic biases. The 2025 PeerJ review found that research is dominated by Europe and North America, with wider topic ranges in South America, Africa, and Australia. This means that management recommendations from one region may not transfer directly to another.

The 2023 Nature Communications study found that the effects of grazing intensification on dung beetles were heterogeneous across sites, either diminishing or increasing species richness, functional diversity, and dung removal rates. This variability limits the ability to make universal predictions about intensification impacts.

The 2022 Journal of Animal Ecology study on network resilience noted that interaction networks remained similar across disturbance gradients, but this resilience depended on high mammal diversity and generalist beetle feeding patterns. In systems where mammal diversity is already reduced, networks may be more vulnerable.

The 2025 Synapsis study highlighted data deficiencies for rare species, with insufficient data preventing conclusive conservation status assessments. Similar data gaps likely exist for many dung beetle species worldwide.

Safety and Regulatory Context

Dung beetle introductions carry regulatory and ecological risks. The 2020 PeerJ study documented how introduction programs provided exotic species with opportunities to cross natural barriers and spread beyond their native ranges. The 2021 Environmental Entomology review discussed risks and challenges associated with introductions, including potential impacts on endemic faunas.

Land managers considering dung beetle introductions should consult relevant regulatory authorities and assess the risk of establishing invasive populations. The review noted that exotic species dominate dung beetle assemblages in pasture habitats in the Antipodes and North America, indicating that introductions can substantially alter native communities.

Veterinary chemical use requires attention because certain compounds harm dung beetles. The 2025 PeerJ review noted that publications on the effect of veterinary chemicals showed the largest drop over time, but the topic remains relevant for pasture management. Farmers should follow label instructions and consider the timing of treatments relative to beetle activity periods.

Professional Escalation Criteria

Consult entomologists, extension specialists, or conservation authorities when:

• Dung removal rates decline sharply without an obvious management change
• Rare or protected dung beetle species are detected on managed land
• Dung beetle introductions are being considered
• Veterinary chemical applications coincide with peak beetle breeding seasons
• Habitat restoration or land use conversion may affect beetle communities
• Pest or parasite populations increase despite dung beetle activity

These professionals can provide species-level identification, population assessments, and management recommendations tailored to local conditions.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the three functional groups of dung beetles?

The three functional groups are tunnelers (paracoprids), rollers (telecoprids), and dwellers (endocoprids). Tunnelers dig shafts beneath the dung pat and pack dung into brood masses. Rollers form dung balls and roll them away from the source before burying them. Dwellers complete their life cycle within the dung pat itself. A 2024 review in Neotropical Entomology found that dwelling strategies predominate in colder and drier settings, while tunneling and rolling strategies are more common in warmer, more humid environments.

How do dung beetles affect greenhouse gas emissions from cattle dung?

A 2017 study in PLOS ONE found that the presence of dung beetles generally reduced total greenhouse gas emissions from dung pats compared to beetle-free dung. All beetle treatments reduced total cumulative carbon dioxide flux, and the three most abundant species reduced nitrous oxide flux. However, the large tunneler Copris lunaris increased methane flux, a disservice linked to its nesting strategy. The mix of the three most abundant species provided the highest total reduction at 32 percent when fluxes were summed into carbon dioxide equivalents.

Do dung beetles help with seed dispersal?

Yes, dung beetles contribute to seed dispersal through dung relocation and passive burial. A 2022 study in New Forests found that tunneler dung beetles in Mediterranean dehesas contributed to passive acorn burial through soil movement, protecting acorns from rodent predation and improving oak seedling establishment. The study concluded that passive acorn burial by dung beetles is an important but little-studied ecosystem service.

Can dung beetle introductions harm native ecosystems?

Yes, introduced dung beetles can become invasive. A 2020 study in PeerJ identified four species as the most successful invaders globally: Digitonthophagus gazella, Onthophagus taurus, Euoniticellus intermedius, and Aphodius fimetarius. The 2021 Environmental Entomology review noted that exotic species dominate dung beetle assemblages in pasture habitats in the Antipodes and North America. Land managers should weigh intended benefits against the risk of establishing invasive populations.

How does grazing intensification affect dung beetle communities?

The effects are heterogeneous. A 2023 study in Nature Communications examined 38 pastures worldwide and found that intensification either diminished or increased dung beetle species richness, functional diversity, and dung removal rates depending on the site. However, functional diversity consistently enhanced dung removal within sites, independent of grazing intensity or climate. This means that maintaining functionally diverse communities supports ecosystem services even under intensified stocking rates.

What factors determine the success of dung beetle introduction programs?

A 2021 review in Environmental Entomology identified climatic and edaphic matches, the size of founding populations, abiotic and biotic stressors, and the time of year when releases are made as critical determinants of introduction success. The review documented 37 introduced and 47 adventive dung beetle species established in the Antipodes and North America.

How do dung beetles respond to habitat disturbance in forests?

Dung beetle species richness declines in response to lower above-ground carbon density and is particularly low in plantations and the most disturbed forest sites. A 2022 study in the Journal of Animal Ecology found that interaction networks only became simplified in the most disturbed sites, with high mammal diversity and generalist beetle feeding patterns conferring resilience. A 2024 study in Urban Ecosystems found that landscapes with greater forest cover showed greater beetle abundance and larger individuals.

What is the current state of dung beetle research?

A 2025 study in PeerJ analyzed 4,145 peer-reviewed articles published from 1930 to 2024. Research is split into agricultural and biological topics, ecological topics, and taxonomic topics. Articles relating to ecosystem function rose from low presence before the 2000s to become the most prevalent topic in the last two decades. Research is global but dominated by Europe and North America, with wider topic ranges in South America, Africa, and Australia.

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References and Further Reading

• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
• A trait-based framework for dung beetle functional ecology.. The Journal of animal ecology, 2023.
• Dung removal increases under higher dung beetle functional diversity regardless of grazing intensification.. Nature communications, 2023.
• Tropical forest dung beetle-mammal dung interaction networks remain similar across an environmental disturbance gradient.. The Journal of animal ecology, 2022.
• A Review of Dung Beetle Introductions in the Antipodes and North America: Status, Opportunities, and Challenges.. Environmental entomology, 2021.
• Spatial and temporal trends in dung beetle research.. PeerJ, 2025.
• Dung beetle species introductions: when an ecosystem service provider transforms into an invasive species.. PeerJ, 2020.
• Sexually transmitted mutualist nematodes shape host growth across dung beetle species.. Ecology and evolution, 2024.
• Greenhouse gas emissions from dung pats vary with dung beetle species and with assemblage composition.. PloS one, 2017.
• Seasonal variation of dung-associated arthropods in cattle pastures of Terceira Island (Azores): a year-round, event-based dataset.. 2026.
• Elucidating the functions of gut microbiota from two edible dung beetle species: Implications for waste management and food industry.. 2025.
• Ecological bottlenecks and future pathways for &lt,i&gt,Zygogramma bicolorata&lt,/i&gt, as a biocontrol agent of &lt,i&gt,Parthenium hysterophorus&lt,/i&gt, in North India.. 2026.
• A multiple filter-wrapper feature selection algorithm based on process optimization mechanism for high-dimensional omics data analysis.. 2025.
• Biodiversity resilience in a tropical rainforest.. 2026.
• The influence of forest canopy cover on the diversity and community structure of dung beetles in tropical forest ecosystems of Central Vietnam. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies, 2025.
• Effects of Land use Change on Coprini dung Beetles in Tropical Karst Ecosystems of Puluong Nature Reserve. 2019.
• Habitat loss reduces abundance and body size of forest-dwelling dung beetles in an Amazonian urban landscape. Urban Ecosystems, 2024.
• Population dynamics and conservation assessment of two recently described Synapsis beetles in tropical karst ecosystems of Northern Vietnam. Journal of Forestry Science and Technology, 2025.
• A Key Interaction Behind the Scenes: Dung Beetles in Livestock Production from Arid and Semi-Arid Rangelands. Neotropical Entomology, 2024.
• Cattle dung and bioturbation by dung beetles improve oak seedling establishment in Mediterranean silvopastoral ecosystems. New forests, 2022.
• Volatile-mediated behavioural preferences in the chemical ecology of dung beetles: a review. Entomologia Generalis, 2025.
• The chemical ecology of dung beetles and the potential applications of their bioactive compounds. Studies in Natural Products Chemistry, 2024.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.