Cute Animals: The Science Behind Why We Find Them Adorable

The perception of cuteness in animals is a measurable biological and psychological phenomenon rooted in the baby schema concept first proposed by ethologist Konrad Lorenz. Baby schema refers to a specific set of infantile facial and body features, including a large head relative to body size, large eyes, a small nose and mouth, and rounded cheeks, that trigger caregiving responses in humans. Research demonstrates that these features influence cuteness perception, gaze allocation, and nurturing motivation across human and animal faces, with practical implications for animal shelters, breeding decisions, pet adoption, and human-animal bond formation. This article explains the evolutionary basis of cuteness perception, provides a practical checklist of features that trigger cuteness responses across species, and outlines how this knowledge applies to animal care and welfare decisions.

At a Glance: Cuteness Response Features and Their Effects

The following table summarizes key baby schema features, their documented effects on human perception and behavior, and practical considerations for animal care professionals.

The Baby Schema Concept and Its Origins

The baby schema concept was originally proposed as a set of infantile traits with high appeal for humans, subsequently shown to elicit caretaking behavior and to affect cuteness perception and attentional processes according to research published in Frontiers in Psychology. These traits include a large head, large eyes, a prominent forehead, a small nose and mouth, and rounded, soft body features. The evolutionary logic is straightforward: adults who responded to these features with caregiving behavior were more likely to ensure the survival of their offspring, so the response became deeply embedded in human psychology.

The response to infantile facial configuration emerges early during development. A 2014 study involving children aged 3 to 6 years found that the baby schema affects both cuteness perception and gaze allocation to infantile stimuli and to specific facial features, an effect not simply limited to human faces according to the same Frontiers in Psychology study. Children preferentially attended to images with higher baby schema regardless of whether the images depicted humans, dogs, or cats. This finding indicates that the cuteness response is not learned exclusively through exposure to human infants but extends to animal faces through a generalized perceptual mechanism.

The evolutionary origins of this response may predate modern humans. Research on nonhuman primates demonstrated that Japanese macaques and Campbell's monkeys spontaneously discriminated between infant and adult images and showed a preference for infant images, even when the images depicted a different species according to a study published in PLoS One. The fact that Campbell's monkeys, who were completely naïve to Japanese macaques, still looked longer at infant macaque images suggests that the attractiveness of infantile features transcends species differences and may represent an ancient cognitive trait.

How Cuteness Perception Works in the Brain

Cuteness perception operates through rapid, largely automatic neural processes. Accumulating behavioral and neurophysiological studies support the idea of infantile faces as highly biologically relevant stimuli that rapidly and unconsciously capture attention and elicit positive and affectionate behaviors, including willingness to care according to a review published in Frontiers in Psychology. This rapid processing makes sense from an evolutionary perspective because caregiving decisions often need to be made quickly.

The neural response to baby schema features involves multiple systems. Research using electroencephalography found that infants with more pronounced baby schema features elicited stronger smiling responses and enhanced P2 and LPP amplitudes compared to infants with less pronounced features according to a study published in Hormones and Behavior. These neural markers indicate that cuteness perception involves both early attentional processing and later evaluative processing. The same study found that individual differences in oxytocin system gene methylation and nurturant care motivation predicted the strength of these neural responses, suggesting that biological variation influences how strongly people respond to cute features.

The neuroendocrine system plays a central role in the human-animal bond. The review in Frontiers in Psychology emphasized the neuroendocrine regulation of the social bond between humans and animals through oxytocin secretion. Oxytocin, sometimes called the bonding hormone, is released during positive social interactions and may reinforce the attachment between humans and their companion animals. instead of considering companion animals as mere baby substitutes, this review highlighted the central role of cats and dogs in human lives and their ability to bond with humans as fulfilling the need for attention and emotional intimacy.

The Checklist of Cuteness-Triggering Features Across Species

The following checklist provides a practical framework for identifying features that trigger cuteness responses in humans across different animal species. This information is useful for animal shelter staff, breeders, veterinarians, and anyone involved in animal adoption or public education.

Facial Features

Large eyes relative to face size represent one of the most powerful cuteness triggers. Eye shape specifically influences perceptions of adoptability in cats. A 2026 study found that black cats with walnut-shaped eyes had the highest adoptability ratings among Australian survey participants according to research published in Animals. The same study identified a novel objective cuteness measurement that reflects the eye shape associated with subjective cuteness scores.

A short muzzle or flat face triggers cuteness responses but carries significant welfare concerns. Research using digitally morphed images of the same dogs found that shorter muzzles were generally preferred by survey participants according to a study published in Scientific Reports. However, this preference for shorter muzzles is a hidden driver of the brachycephalic welfare crisis, as extreme selection for flat faces causes chronic health problems. The study found that associating more health problems with brachycephaly was negatively associated with preference for shorter muzzles, except among those with positive attitudes toward brachycephalic dogs.

A large, round head relative to body size is a core baby schema feature. This feature is common in juvenile animals across species and diminishes as animals mature. The original baby schema concept included a large, round head as one of the defining infantile traits according to research published in Hormones and Behavior.

Rounded cheeks and soft facial contours contribute to the infantile configuration. These features signal youth and vulnerability, triggering protective responses in human observers.

A small nose and mouth relative to the face enhances perceived cuteness. These features are part of the original baby schema trait set and are most pronounced in very young animals.

Body Features

A large head to body ratio is perhaps the most recognizable cuteness feature. This proportion is most pronounced in newborns and juveniles across mammalian species and diminishes with growth.

Soft, rounded body contours signal youth and health. Angular or bony features are generally perceived as less cute and more mature.

Small body size relative to adult members of the species enhances cuteness perception. Research on dog-directed communication found that speakers used a wider pitch range and more intense happy facial expressions when interacting with smaller dogs according to a study published in Animal Cognition. This response is likely related to the cuteness factor and the baby schema in female speakers.

Behavioral Features

Clumsy or uncoordinated movements characteristic of juveniles trigger caregiving responses. These behaviors signal vulnerability and need for protection.

High-pitched vocalizations elicit attention and positive engagement. Research on dog-directed speech found that speakers used a higher pitch when interacting with an unfamiliar dog compared to their own dog, suggesting that heightened overall pitch may serve as a way to appear friendly toward an unfamiliar being according to the Animal Cognition study.

Playful behavior that mimics human infant play patterns enhances perceived cuteness. This behavioral similarity may strengthen the human-animal bond through shared activity.

Cuteness and the Human-Animal Bond

The presence of infantile physical and behavioral features in companion animals may form the basis of human attraction to these species according to the review published in Frontiers in Psychology. Preliminary evidence has shown that the human attentional bias toward the baby schema extends to animal facial configurations. This extension means that dogs and cats with more pronounced infantile features receive more attention and positive engagement from humans.

The human-animal bond serves psychological and adaptive functions similar to human-human friendships. The Frontiers in Psychology review highlighted that facial cuteness is beyond a releaser of care or parental behavior but, more generally, a trait motivating social engagement. Companion animals bond with humans in ways that fulfill the need for attention and emotional intimacy, and cuteness facilitates this bonding process.

Dog-directed communication provides a concrete example of how cuteness influences human behavior. The Animal Cognition study found that exaggerated prosody directed toward dogs has multiple functions, including attention getting and maintaining as well as expressing positive emotions toward the canine partner. The study analyzed prosodic features of female speakers when interacting with their own dogs versus unfamiliar dogs of the same breed during three situations: attention-getting, task-solving, and nursery rhymes. Only mean pitch was affected by familiarity, with speakers using a higher pitch when interacting with the unfamiliar dog. Pitch range and the intensity of happy facial expressions were affected by the dog's size, with speakers using a wider pitch range and more intense happy expressions when interacting with smaller dogs.

Cuteness in Animal Shelters and Adoption

Cuteness perception has direct practical applications in animal shelter management and adoption outcomes. Research on cats in an Irish animal shelter investigated the potential influence of baby schema on length of stay according to a study published in Animals. The study created objective cuteness scores by measuring specific facial features of 165 shelter cats and developed subjective cuteness scores through online surveys. The analysis found that subjective cuteness was the only variable of influence on length of stay among the factors studied, which included paired-homing requirements, adoption profile wording, coat color, sex, and age.

However, the same study found that cuteness may not be as influential on cats' length of stay in shelters as hypothesized. This finding suggests that while cuteness matters, other factors such as adoption promotion efforts and potential adopters' individual preferences also play significant roles. The research aimed to understand factors that influence length of stay to help identify potential methods to reduce time spent in shelters and improve the welfare of cats within these environments.

Online pet adoption profiles create powerful first impressions. The Animals study on cat adoptability found that adoptability scores varied significantly with the cat's coat color and eye shape but not pupil size. Black cats with walnut-shaped eyes had the highest adoptability ratings. A stepwise multiple regression determined seven variables influencing adoptability scores, including the degree to which the image was rated as cute, friendly, shy, active, difficult, playful, and devoted. Cuteness had the strongest influence, explaining 34 percent of the model variance.

This information can help animal adoption agencies understand how cats' physical features can be utilized in online profiles to enhance adoption outcomes. Practical applications include selecting photographs that highlight eye shape, considering coat color in presentation, and crafting adoption descriptions that emphasize traits associated with positive perceptions.

The Welfare Paradox of Cuteness Preferences

The same cuteness preferences that drive adoption and bonding can create serious animal welfare problems when taken to extremes. Brachycephalic dog breeds remain highly popular despite increasing efforts by the scientific community to raise awareness of breed-related health problems through educational campaigns, public information initiatives, and veterinary outreach programs according to a study published in Animals. As the number of brachycephalic dogs increases, the prevalence of associated health problems rises accordingly.

Ethical and animal welfare considerations appear to play a limited role in breed selection. The Animals study on brachycephalic dog ownership conducted semi-structured interviews with 16 people with brachycephalic dogs throughout Switzerland. The results indicated that although awareness of torture breeding is present, this awareness does not necessarily translate into different breed choices. Torture breeding is defined as intentional selection for extreme phenotypic traits that impair health, reduce welfare, and cause chronic suffering, particularly in brachycephalic breeds.

The preference for shorter muzzles is a hidden driver of the brachycephalic welfare crisis. The Scientific Reports study found that preference for shorter muzzles was positively associated with positive attitudes toward brachycephalic dogs, older age, conscientiousness, extraversion, and appreciation of aesthetics. It was negatively associated with dog-related professional expertise, openness, and a liking for control in dog keeping. Among respondents without prior attitudes, preference was positively linked to viewing the ideal dog as childlike. These findings support the notion that individuals preferring shorter muzzles may prioritize aesthetic traits over health concerns.

Crossbreeding offers one potential pathway to address these welfare concerns. A study of UK public attitudes found that key motivators to acquire a brachycephalic crossbreed versus a brachycephalic purebred included perceptions of improved health, including the reduction in risk of breed and conformation-related disorders according to research published in PLoS One. Strategic crossbreeding could lead to more rapid and effective improvements in welfare compared to current practices of within-breed selection. However, further research on crossbred brachycephalic dogs is urgently required for a greater understanding of the motivators and barriers to their acquisition.

Individual and Cultural Variation in Cuteness Perception

Cuteness perception is not uniform across individuals or cultures. The Hormones and Behavior study found that individual differences significantly predicted baby schema effects. Women with low OXTR methylation and high nurturance motivation showed enhanced differentiation in automatic neurophysiological responses to infants with high and low levels of baby schema features. This finding highlights the importance of considering individual differences in understanding sensitivity to child cues and facial features.

Cultural factors also shape cuteness perception. A cross-cultural study of avatar design found that baby schema designed avatars were rated cuter, more likable, approachable, and pleasant than neutral mature avatars according to research published in AI and Society. However, cultural differences were evident. The Caucasian baby schema avatar was rated cuter among Japanese participants, while the Asian and Black baby schema avatars were rated cuter among Israeli respondents. The study highlighted the significance of cultural diversity and emphasized the importance of considering cuteness as a crucial aspect of design intended to elicit positive emotions.

The concept of kawaii in Japanese culture represents a culturally specific elaboration of cuteness. Research on measuring affective responses to cuteness and Japanese kawaii as a multidimensional construct is documented in Current Psychology. This research indicates that cuteness is not a single dimension but a multidimensional construct that varies across cultural contexts.

Cuteness and Neurodevelopmental Variation

Cuteness perception also varies with neurodevelopmental conditions. A 2025 study examined whether sensitivity to baby schema is affected in autistic children according to research published in the Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. The study involved 94 children aged 20 to 83 months, including 31 typically developing children and 63 children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Animals and neutral objects were simultaneously presented on screen along with either human babies or adults.

The results indicated that visual attention oriented to cute-featured stimuli varied with autism symptom severity. Only children with low to moderate autism symptoms and typically developing children spent more time looking at cute-featured stimuli than neutral objects. Children with higher severity in the social affect domain spent less time on stimuli depicting cute versus non-cute stimuli. These findings suggest that autism symptom severity and social skills are linked to variations in visual attention to cute stimuli.

This research has practical implications for interventions. The study discussed implications of baby schema sensitivity in relation to the development of social competencies and play, responsiveness to robot-based interventions, and appraised relevance in autistic children. Understanding how cuteness perception varies across neurodevelopmental conditions can inform educational and therapeutic interventions involving pets.

The Ugly-Cute Phenomenon

Not all appealing animals conform to classic baby schema features. The ugly-cute phenomenon challenges conventional standards of beauty by embracing a form of ugliness to enhance appeal according to research published in Frontiers in Psychology. This study investigated the role of emotions such as pleasure, humor, and surprise in the relationship between ugly-cute characteristics and attractiveness.

The findings revealed that general beauty directly generates attractiveness by eliciting pleasurable emotions, whereas ugly-cute memes achieve attractiveness by inducing pleasurable emotions through the mediation of humor. Both ugly and ugly-cute memes evoke a sense of surprise, but that elicited by ugly-cute memes is accompanied by a humorous response, thereby enhancing their attractiveness. Ugly memes fail to evoke humor and lack attractiveness.

This phenomenon has practical relevance for animal welfare. Some breeds and individual animals that do not conform to classic baby schema features may still attract devoted owners through humor and personality-based appeal. Understanding the ugly-cute phenomenon can help shelters present less conventionally cute animals in ways that highlight their appeal.

Practical Applications for Animal Care Professionals

Understanding cuteness science has concrete applications for animal shelters, breeders, veterinarians, and educators. The following practical steps can help professionals apply this knowledge responsibly.

Assessment Steps for Shelters

Shelter staff can assess how cuteness perception might influence adoption outcomes for individual animals. Begin by photographing animals in consistent conditions with good lighting that accurately represents their appearance. Consider how eye shape, coat color, and facial proportions appear in photographs, since online profiles create powerful first impressions according to the Animals study on cat adoptability.

Write adoption descriptions that emphasize positive traits beyond physical appearance. The same study found that perceptions of friendliness, playfulness, and devotion influenced adoptability scores alongside cuteness. Highlighting behavioral qualities can help animals with less pronounced baby schema features find homes.

Monitor length of stay data for patterns related to physical characteristics. The Animals study on shelter cats found that subjective cuteness influenced length of stay, but other factors also mattered. Tracking these patterns can help shelters allocate promotional resources effectively.

Records and Measurements

Shelters and researchers can measure facial features to create objective cuteness scores. The Animals study on shelter cats explored several proportions of cat faces to identify the best objective measure of cuteness, including elements associated with cuteness in cats and humans and new exploratory eye measurements. These measurements can be standardized and recorded for research or promotional purposes.

Document adoption outcomes alongside physical measurements to build local evidence about what works in specific communities. Cultural and individual variation in cuteness perception means that findings from one region may not directly transfer to another according to the AI and Society study.

Welfare Controls and Escalation Criteria

Animal care professionals have a responsibility to balance cuteness-driven preferences with welfare considerations. The brachycephalic welfare crisis demonstrates the dangers of unchecked aesthetic preferences according to the Scientific Reports study. Breeders and veterinarians should educate potential owners about health problems associated with extreme conformations.

Escalation criteria for welfare concerns include visible breathing difficulty, eye problems, dental issues, and skin fold infections in brachycephalic animals. Professionals should refer owners to veterinarians when these signs appear and should not participate in breeding programs that select for extreme traits that impair health.

Educational efforts should address the gap between health awareness and breed choice. The Animals study on brachycephalic ownership found that awareness of torture breeding does not necessarily change behavior. Effective education may need to address the emotional and aesthetic drivers of breed preference instead of only providing health information.

Common Failure Patterns in Applying Cuteness Science

Several common mistakes occur when applying cuteness science to animal care and welfare decisions.

Assuming cuteness perception is universal across all people and cultures represents a significant error. Research demonstrates substantial individual and cultural variation in cuteness perception according to the Hormones and Behavior study and the AI and Society study. Decisions based on assumptions about universal cuteness responses may not achieve intended outcomes.

Prioritizing aesthetic preferences over health and welfare leads to harmful outcomes. The brachycephalic crisis demonstrates this failure pattern clearly according to the Scientific Reports study. Professionals should actively resist pressure to promote or breed animals with extreme conformations that impair health.

Overestimating the influence of cuteness on adoption outcomes can lead to misplaced resources. The Animals study on shelter cats found that cuteness may not be as influential on length of stay as hypothesized. Shelters should invest in multiple strategies to promote adoption instead of relying solely on presenting animals as cute.

Ignoring behavioral factors in favor of physical appearance misses important drivers of human-animal bonding. The Frontiers in Psychology review emphasized that companion animals bond with humans in ways that fulfill the need for attention and emotional intimacy. Behavioral compatibility matters as much as physical appearance for successful long-term placements.

Limitations of Current Research

The scientific understanding of cuteness perception has several important limitations. Much of the research relies on subjective ratings and laboratory-based eye-tracking studies that may not fully capture real-world responses. The Frontiers in Psychology study on children acknowledged that questions remain as to whether the cute response is constant and persistent or whether it changes with development.

Sample diversity presents another limitation. Many studies use Western participants or specific demographic groups. The AI and Society study found cultural differences between Israeli and Japanese participants, suggesting that findings from single-culture studies may not generalize broadly.

Research on animal cuteness often focuses on companion animals, particularly dogs and cats. Less is known about cuteness perception for farm animals, wildlife, and exotic species. The PLoS One study on primates suggests that infantile features attract attention across species, but the practical implications for human-animal interactions with non-companion species remain underexplored.

The relationship between cuteness perception and long-term animal welfare outcomes requires further investigation. While the Animals study on shelter cats examined length of stay, the study noted that cuteness may not be as influential as hypothesized. More research is needed to understand how cuteness affects adoption success, retention, and animal welfare over time.

Safety and Regulatory Context

Cuteness perception has safety implications, particularly regarding dog bites and child-animal interactions. The Frontiers in Psychology study on children noted that results confirming human positive appraisal toward animals inform both educational and therapeutic interventions involving pets, helping to minimize risk factors such as dog bites. Children may approach unfamiliar animals because they perceive them as cute, increasing bite risk.

Parents and educators should teach children that cuteness does not equal safety. An animal's willingness to be approached and handled depends on its individual temperament, socialization, and current state, not on how cute it appears. Children should learn to read animal body language and to ask permission before approaching animals.

Professionals working with animals should be aware that their own cuteness perceptions may influence their behavior. Veterinary staff and shelter workers may unconsciously devote more attention to animals they perceive as cute, potentially neglecting less conventionally attractive animals. Standardized care protocols help ensure all animals receive appropriate attention regardless of appearance.

Regulatory considerations vary by jurisdiction. Some regions have begun to address extreme conformations through breeding regulations. Professionals should be aware of local laws regarding animal breeding and welfare and should consult relevant authorities when questions arise about legal requirements.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why do humans find baby animals cute?

Humans find baby animals cute because infantile facial and body features trigger an evolved caregiving response. The baby schema concept describes a set of traits including large eyes, a large head relative to body size, a small nose and mouth, and rounded cheeks that elicit caretaking behavior according to research published in Frontiers in Psychology. This response extends beyond human infants to animal faces, suggesting a generalized perceptual mechanism that evolved to ensure care of vulnerable young.

Do all people find the same animals cute?

No, cuteness perception varies substantially across individuals and cultures. Individual differences in oxytocin system gene methylation and nurturance motivation predict how strongly people respond to baby schema features according to a study published in Hormones and Behavior. Cultural differences also shape cuteness perception, as demonstrated by a cross-cultural study of avatar design published in AI and Society.

Why are some flat-faced dog breeds so popular despite health problems?

Shorter muzzles are generally preferred by people viewing dog images according to research published in Scientific Reports. This aesthetic preference appears to override health concerns for many owners. The study found that associating more health problems with brachycephaly was negatively associated with preference for shorter muzzles, except among those with positive attitudes toward brachycephalic dogs.

Does cuteness affect how quickly animals get adopted from shelters?

Cuteness can influence adoption outcomes, but its effect may be smaller than commonly assumed. A study of cats in an Irish animal shelter found that subjective cuteness was the only variable of influence on length of stay among the factors studied, but the same study noted that cuteness may not be as influential as hypothesized according to research published in Animals. Other factors such as adoption promotion and individual adopter preferences also matter.

What is the ugly-cute phenomenon?

Ugly-cute refers to animals or characters that are appealing despite not conforming to conventional beauty standards. Research published in Frontiers in Psychology found that ugly-cute memes achieve attractiveness by inducing pleasurable emotions through the mediation of humor. This phenomenon shows that cuteness is not limited to classic baby schema features.

How does cuteness perception affect child safety around animals?

Children may approach unfamiliar animals because they perceive them as cute, which can increase bite risk. Research published in Frontiers in Psychology noted that understanding human positive appraisal toward animals can inform educational and therapeutic interventions involving pets and help minimize risk factors such as dog bites. Children should be taught that cuteness does not indicate an animal's willingness to be handled.

Can cuteness research help improve animal welfare?

Yes, understanding cuteness perception can improve welfare in several ways. Shelters can use knowledge about physical features to present animals effectively in adoption profiles according to research published in Animals. Understanding the welfare paradox of cuteness preferences can inform breeding decisions and owner education according to research published in Scientific Reports.

Is the cuteness response the same across all animal species?

The cuteness response appears to be a generalized mechanism that extends across species. Research on nonhuman primates found that Campbell's monkeys, who were completely naïve to Japanese macaques, still looked longer at infant macaque images than adult images according to a study published in PLoS One. However, the strength of the response may vary depending on how closely an animal's features match the infantile configuration.

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References and Further Reading

• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
• Baby schema in human and animal faces induces cuteness perception and gaze allocation in children.. Frontiers in psychology, 2014.
• The Effect of Baby Schema in Cats on Length of Stay in an Irish Animal Shelter.. Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, 2022.
• Pet Face: Mechanisms Underlying Human-Animal Relationships.. Frontiers in psychology, 2016.
• Examining the Link Between Social Affect and Visual Exploration of Cute Stimuli in Autistic Children.. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 2025.
• Visual recognition of age class and preference for infantile features: implications for species-specific vs universal cognitive traits in primates.. PloS one, 2012.
• The effect of familiarity and dog's body size on female owners' dog-directed communication.. Animal cognition, 2026.
• The Influence of Cat Coat Colour, Eye Shape, and Pupil Size on Ratings of Adoptability Based on a Standardised Online Image, in an Australian Sample.. 2026.
• Why Are You Keeping a Brachycephalic Dog? Insights from Interviews with Brachycephalic-Dog Owners.. 2026.
• The Walla Emotion Model (WEM): A New Terminology Redefining Affective Dysregulation in Clinical Psychopathology.. 2026.
• Selective attraction to shorter muzzles in dogs is a hidden driver of the brachycephalic welfare crisis.. 2025.
• The aesthetic experience of general beauty and ugly-cute memes: the role of emotion.. 2024.
• Linguistic structure from a bottleneck on sequential information processing.. 2026.
• "You could get the best of both breeds or the worst of both": UK public attitudes towards crossbreeding in dogs - with a specific focus on brachycephalic dogs.. 2026.
• The Evolutionary Psychology of Cuteness: Manipulating Eye-to-Face Proportions in Stuffed Animals to Better Understand Why Some Things Are Cuter Than Others
• Cuteness in avatar design: a cross-cultural study on the influence of baby schema features and other visual characteristics. Ai & Society, 2024.
• Facing infant cuteness: How nurturing care motivation and oxytocin system gene methylation are associated with responses to baby schema features.. Hormones and Behavior, 2024.
• - Facing baby cuteness: how nurturing care and oxytocin system gene methylation are associated with responses to baby schema. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 2024.
• Measuring Affective Responses to Cuteness and Japanese kawaii as a Multidimensional Construct. Current Psychology, 2020.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.