Bat Nesting Behavior: How Bats Raise Their Young

Bats do not build nests in the way birds do. Instead, female bats gather in maternity colonies within caves, tree cavities, buildings, bat boxes, and other sheltered structures to give birth and raise their pups. Understanding how bats raise their young requires knowledge of roost selection, colony social structure, pup development, and the specific environmental conditions that support successful reproduction. This article explains the reproductive cycle of bats, the formation and function of maternity colonies, the timeline of pup development from birth to independence, and the practical steps landowners and wildlife managers can take to protect these vulnerable seasonal gatherings.

What Is a Bat Maternity Colony

A maternity colony is a group of pregnant females that gathers in a shared roost to give birth and rear their young. These colonies form in late spring and summer in temperate regions and may persist year-round in tropical environments. The colony provides warmth, protection from predators, and social support for mothers and pups. Males typically roost separately during this period, often in cooler or more solitary sites.

Maternity roosts are selected for specific microclimatic conditions. A study of the Sima del Órgano Cave in Mexico, home to over 276,000 bats from seven species, documented an average annual temperature of 34.1 degrees Celsius and average relative humidity of 92.6 percent. The researchers described this as a hot cave and noted that adequate microclimate minimizes the energetic costs of thermoregulation, gestation, embryonic development, parental care, lactation, and social interaction for roosting bats. This finding illustrates why maternity roosts are often warm, humid, and stable in temperature.

The size of maternity colonies varies enormously by species and location. Some tree-roosting bats form colonies of fewer than 100 individuals, while cave-dwelling species such as the Mexican free-tailed bat may gather in colonies of millions. The common feature is that pregnant females aggregate in a location that supports the thermal and social needs of reproduction.

Timing of Births and Reproductive Cycles

The timing of bat births is tied to seasonal patterns of food availability and temperature. In temperate regions, bats typically mate in autumn or winter, store sperm, and delay fertilization or embryonic development until spring. Births occur in late spring or early summer when insect prey becomes abundant. In tropical regions, births may be timed to rainy seasons or peaks in fruit availability.

Urbanization can shift the timing of births. A study of Egyptian fruit bats in Israel found that urban-dwelling colonies gave birth approximately 2.5 weeks earlier in spring than rural colonies. The researchers attributed this difference to higher average temperatures and a richer supply of fruit during winter in urban habitats. They also found that roosting in urban colonies did not decrease reproductive success, contrary to patterns observed in some urban bird species.

The synchrony of births within a colony has important implications for disease dynamics. A study of Reunion free-tailed bats on Reunion Island examined virus shedding patterns in two maternity colonies across four consecutive birthing seasons. The researchers found that parturition of pregnant females and aggregation of juvenile bats were associated with major increases in the prevalence of bats shedding RNA viruses including astroviruses, coronaviruses, and paramyxoviruses. Virus shedding patterns were consistent among years and colonies for coronaviruses and to a lesser extent for paramyxoviruses, but not for astroviruses. This research demonstrates that the seasonal pulse of births creates conditions for pathogen transmission within maternity colonies.

Roost Selection and Colony Formation

Natural Roosts

Bats use a variety of natural roost types for maternity colonies. Caves provide stable temperatures and high humidity, making them ideal for many species. Tree cavities and snags are used by forest-roosting bats such as the northern long-eared bat and the barbastelle bat. Rock crevices, cliff faces, and hollow trees also serve as maternity sites.

Forest-roosting bats use a variety of ephemeral roosts such as snags and declining live trees. A study of northern long-eared bat maternity colonies in Kentucky examined the effects of removing roost trees during the dormant season when bats were hibernating in caves. The researchers removed either a single highly used primary roost or 24 percent of less used secondary roosts, with an un-manipulated control. Neither treatment altered the number of roosts used by individual bats, but secondary roost removal doubled the distances moved between sequentially used roosts. Overall space use and colony location remained similar before and after treatment. The study suggested that loss of a primary roost or up to 20 percent of secondary roosts in the dormant season may not cause northern long-eared bats to abandon roosting areas, but tolerance limits may depend on local forest conditions.

Human-Made Roosts

Buildings, bridges, and bat boxes frequently serve as maternity roosts. Little brown bats in the northeastern United States and southern Canada routinely establish diurnal roosts in anthropogenic structures, creating potential for direct human contact. Bat boxes can serve as alternative roosts for displaced bat maternity colonies, as documented in a study published in the Wildlife Society Bulletin.

When bats are excluded from buildings, providing alternative roosting structures can reduce the likelihood that they will attempt to re-enter or that the colony will be lost entirely. Bat boxes should be installed before exclusion occurs and should be positioned to receive adequate solar exposure while remaining protected from predators and human disturbance.

Roost Switching and Social Structure

Bats frequently switch between roosts within a colony area. A genetic study of big brown bats at four maternity roosts surrounding a golf course found roost switching through both genetic analysis and radio telemetry. The researchers found no evidence of elevated genetic relatedness within colonies or genetic structure among colonies. They concluded that social cohesion based on relatedness may not act to constrain pathogens to a particular roost area, and geographic mobility may increase viral exposure of bats in neighboring areas.

This finding has practical implications for disease monitoring and management. A bat colony that appears to occupy a single building may actually be part of a larger network of roosts spread across the landscape. Wildlife managers should consider the broader roost network when assessing disease risk or planning conservation actions.

Pup Development Timeline

The development of bat pups follows a predictable sequence from birth to independence. The timeline below describes the general pattern observed across bat species, with species-specific variation in duration.

Birth and Neonatal Period

Newborn bats are altricial, meaning they are born hairless or sparsely furred, with closed eyes and limited mobility. Pups weigh approximately 20 to 30 percent of their mother's body weight at birth, which is a large investment for the mother. Birth typically occurs in the roost, and the mother may hang upside down while giving birth.

Immediately after birth, the pup attaches to the mother's nipple and is often carried by the mother during her first foraging flights. The pup's feet and thumbs are well developed at birth, allowing it to cling to the mother's fur or to the roost surface.

First Two Weeks

During the first two weeks, pups are entirely dependent on their mother's milk. The mother leaves the roost to forage at night and returns periodically to nurse. Pups remain in the roost, often clustered together in a nursery group while mothers are away. This clustering helps pups maintain body temperature and may facilitate recognition between mothers and pups.

Maternal behavior during this period can influence pup development in ways that extend beyond nutrition. A study of greater sac-winged bats found that maternal behavioral displays significantly influenced the amount of vocal practice, the presence and versatility of song syllable types in babbling, and the percentage of mature song syllables produced by pups. The researchers concluded that maternal feedback plays a significant role in vocal ontogeny and learning processes in this species.

Weeks Three to Four

By the third and fourth weeks, pups begin to open their eyes and develop fur. They become more active in the roost, exercising their wings and practicing grooming behaviors. Some species begin to make short flights within the roost or at the roost entrance. Pups continue to nurse but may also begin to consume solid food brought back by the mother.

In the spectral bat, a carnivorous species, researchers observed prey provision between family members. The study supported the hypothesis that prey provision as a form of biparental care may serve as a method for adults to transition young bats from milk to a carnivorous diet, ensuring adequate food intake and allowing pups to practice handling large prey items. The researchers also documented synchronized roost departures and returns, suggesting cooperative foraging in a species previously thought to forage exclusively solitarily.

Weeks Five to Seven

By five to seven weeks of age, most bat pups are capable of sustained flight. They begin to accompany their mothers on foraging trips or make independent foraging flights. Weaning occurs gradually, with pups continuing to nurse while also consuming increasing amounts of solid food.

The transition to independence is a critical period. Pups must learn to locate prey, avoid predators, and navigate their environment. In species with complex vocal communication, pups continue to refine their vocal repertoires during this period.

Independence

Most bat pups achieve full independence by six to eight weeks of age, depending on the species and environmental conditions. At this point, they are capable of foraging on their own and may disperse from the maternity colony. In some species, juveniles remain in the colony area through the summer before dispersing in autumn.

The table below summarizes the general timeline of pup development across bat species.

Nursing and Alloparental Care

Maternal Nursing

Nursing is the primary form of parental care in bats. Mothers produce milk that is rich in fat and protein to support rapid pup growth. The energetic demands of lactation are substantial, and lactating females must increase their food intake significantly.

A study of striped hamsters, while not a bat study, demonstrated that maternal body temperature increased significantly with larger litter sizes, accompanied by parallel increases in energy intake, metabolic rate, and milk energy output. The study found that larger litters led to more time spent suckling, resting, and feeding, and that these variables established a relatively linear relationship reflecting an adaptive mechanism that optimizes energy allocation for parental care. While this research was conducted on rodents, it illustrates the physiological trade-offs that lactating mammals face and the relevance of thermal biology to parental care.

Communal Nursing and Alloparental Care

Communal nursing, where females nurse pups that are not their own offspring, has been documented in several bat species. A landmark study of Mexican free-tailed bat maternity colonies in Texas examined genotypes of female-pup nursing pairs and demonstrated that nursing is nonrandom and selective along genetic kinship lines. This finding contradicted earlier reports that nursing in these colonies was indiscriminate. However, an estimated 17 percent of the females sampled were nursing pups that could not be their offspring. The researchers attributed this nonparental nursing to the difficulties females face in consistently relocating and selectively nursing their own pups within enormous colonies.

Alloparental care, where individuals care for young that are not their own offspring, has been reported in over 120 mammalian species. A study at Macaregua Cave in Colombia documented the first observed cases of induced alloparental care in Seba's short-tailed fruit bat. During two separate occasions, researchers observed the willingness of lactating females to accept and carry abandoned pups after placing a female and a non-parental pup together. The researchers noted that additional data is needed to confirm adoption capacity in this species.

These observations have practical implications for wildlife rehabilitators. When orphaned bat pups are introduced to a colony, some lactating females may accept and care for them. However, acceptance is not guaranteed, and the genetic relatedness between females and pups influences nursing behavior in at least some species.

Foraging and Provisioning

Maternal Foraging Behavior

Lactating female bats face the challenge of balancing foraging time with nursing demands. They must consume enough food to produce milk while also returning to the roost frequently to nurse their pups. This trade-off influences foraging range, duration, and prey selection.

A study of prey consumed by big brown bats in a maternity colony documented temporal variation in the types of insects eaten. The study, published in Northwest Science, examined how prey consumption changed over the course of the summer, reflecting both changes in insect availability and the changing nutritional demands of lactating females and growing pups.

Prey Provisioning

In most bat species, pups begin consuming solid food by catching prey themselves or by eating prey brought to the roost by their mothers. The spectral bat study documented prey provision between family members and suggested that this behavior serves to transition young bats from milk to a carnivorous diet. The researchers observed that prey provision allowed pups to practice handling large prey items while ensuring adequate food intake.

For insectivorous bats, mothers may bring prey to the roost or pups may accompany mothers on foraging flights and learn to capture prey by observation and practice. The transition from milk to solid food is gradual, and pups may continue to nurse while also consuming increasing amounts of solid food.

Vocal Learning and Social Development

Bats are among the few mammals capable of vocal learning, and the development of vocal communication is an important part of pup development. A study of greater sac-winged bats found that pups acquire the adult vocal repertoire through a distinctive babbling behavior that shows similarities to human infant babbling. Pups learn song syllables by imitating adult singing males, while their social environment involves frequent interactions with their mothers.

The study monitored the vocal ontogeny of wild pups and found that maternal behavioral displays significantly influenced the amount of vocal practice, the presence and versatility of song syllable types in babbling, and the percentage of mature song syllables produced. The researchers concluded that maternal feedback plays a significant role in vocal ontogeny and learning processes in this species.

This research highlights the importance of maintaining natural social conditions in maternity colonies. Disruption of maternal-pup interactions, whether through roost disturbance, exclusion, or other human activities, may impair vocal development and other social learning processes.

Threats to Maternity Colonies

Habitat Loss and Roost Destruction

The loss of roosting habitat is a primary threat to bat maternity colonies. Forest-roosting bats depend on snags and declining live trees, which are often removed during timber harvest or development. Cave-roosting bats are vulnerable to disturbance from recreational caving, commercial cave development, and changes in cave microclimate.

A study of the Sima del Órgano Cave in Mexico identified the site as a priority for conservation because of the number of species present, the population size, and the presence of species at risk of extinction. The researchers noted that cave environments are among the least known and most threatened on the planet.

Disease

White-nose syndrome has caused catastrophic declines in several North American bat species, including the little brown bat. The disease is caused by the fungal pathogen Pseudogymnoascus destructans and has led to the collapse of little brown bat populations throughout much of the United States and southern Canada. Maternity colonies of this species, which routinely established diurnal roosts in anthropogenic structures, have been particularly affected because the disease reduces survival during hibernation, leading to fewer reproductive females in subsequent summers.

A study of little brown bat maternity colonies in the northeastern and mid-Atlantic United States collected oral swabs from 235 individuals across eight colonies to assess the presence of SARS-CoV-2. No bats tested positive for the virus. The researchers noted that little brown bats may not contract SARS-CoV-2 or that the virus persists at undetectable levels in populations during summer months. They recommended continued monitoring and future work addressing other seasons.

Rabies virus is another disease of concern in bat colonies. Big brown bats are the bat species in North America most frequently found to be rabid because of their high rate of human contact and submissions for rabies testing, of which 4 to 5 percent are positive. A study of big brown bat maternity colonies found no evidence of elevated genetic relatedness within colonies or genetic structure among colonies, suggesting that geographic mobility may increase viral exposure of bats in neighboring areas.

A longitudinal study of serotine bat maternity colonies in France examined European Bat Lyssavirus type 1 antibodies using capture-recapture models. The researchers found that survival and recapture probabilities were not affected by serological status, confirming the capacity of bats to be exposed to lyssaviruses without dying. Peak seroprevalence reached 34 percent and 70 percent in the two study sites. Seroprevalence was significantly higher in summer than in spring, and the maximum time observed between successive positive serological statuses demonstrated the potential persistence of neutralizing antibodies for at least four years.

Environmental Contaminants

Bats are exposed to environmental contaminants through their prey. A study of little brown bat maternity colonies in Nova Scotia, Canada, measured total mercury concentrations in fur samples from 149 adult females. Values showed significant variation among colonies, with mean ranges from 3.76 to 27.38 micrograms per gram dry weight. Forty-eight percent of individuals had mercury concentrations in excess of the 10 micrograms per gram threshold associated with neurochemical changes in bats. Average surface water acidity parameters within an 8 kilometer radius of each maternity roost showed strong negative associations with average colony fur mercury concentrations, suggesting that freshwater acidity in foraging grounds explains much of the variation in mercury bioaccumulation.

Climate Change

Climate change may alter the timing of births, the availability of prey, and the suitability of roost microclimates. The study of Egyptian fruit bats found that urban colonies gave birth earlier than rural colonies, demonstrating that environmental temperatures influence reproductive timing. As global temperatures rise, the timing of insect emergence and fruit availability may shift, potentially creating mismatches between peak food availability and the nutritional demands of lactation.

Protecting Maternity Roosts

Assessment Steps

Landowners and wildlife managers can take several steps to assess whether a structure or area contains a bat maternity colony and to determine appropriate management actions.

First, observe the structure at dusk during the summer months. Bats emerging from a roost at dusk indicate an active roost. Count the number of bats emerging over several evenings to estimate colony size. A colony of more than 50 bats in a building may warrant management attention.

Second, listen for vocalizations. Pups in a maternity colony produce audible chirping and squeaking sounds, particularly in the evening before mothers depart to forage. These sounds can confirm the presence of pups and indicate that the roost is actively used for reproduction.

Third, look for guano accumulation. Bat droppings beneath a roost entrance indicate regular use. Guano from insectivorous bats is dry and crumbles easily, while guano from fruit bats may be moist and contain seeds.

Fourth, consider the timing of observations. Maternity colonies are present only during the breeding season, typically from late spring through late summer in temperate regions. Observations during other seasons may not detect the colony.

Management Options

When a maternity colony is identified in a building, several management options are available. The optimal approach depends on the species, the location, the timing of discovery, and the goals of the landowner.

Exclusion is the process of sealing entry points after bats have left the roost. Exclusion should never be performed during the maternity season when flightless pups are present, as this will trap pups inside and cause them to die. Exclusion should be completed in early spring before bats return or in late summer or autumn after pups are volant and the colony has dispersed.

Bat boxes can provide alternative roosts for displaced colonies. A study published in the Wildlife Society Bulletin documented the use of bat boxes as alternative roosts for displaced bat maternity colonies. When installing bat boxes, position them near the original roost site, mount them on poles or buildings at least 10 to 15 feet above ground, and ensure they receive adequate solar exposure.

For forest-roosting bats, retaining snags and declining live trees is critical. The study of northern long-eared bats found that removal of a primary roost or up to 20 percent of secondary roosts during the dormant season did not cause bats to abandon roosting areas, but tolerance limits may depend on local forest conditions. Landowners should retain a diversity of roost trees across the landscape to provide options for roost switching.

Monitoring and Records

Maintaining records of bat colony activity is important for detecting changes over time. Record the following information for each known roost:

• Location and description of the roost structure
• Estimated colony size based on emergence counts
• Dates of colony occupation and departure
• Evidence of pup presence, such as vocalizations or guano
• Weather conditions during observation periods
• Any management actions taken and their outcomes

These records can help identify trends in colony size, detect the effects of management actions, and provide data for conservation planning.

Common Failure Patterns in Bat Colony Management

Several common mistakes can undermine efforts to protect or manage bat maternity colonies.

Excluding bats during the maternity season is the most serious error. This traps flightless pups inside the structure, leading to their death and creating odor and insect problems as the pups decompose. It may also cause adult females to attempt to re-enter the structure, damaging the exclusion work.

Installing bat boxes in poor locations is another common failure. Boxes that are too shaded, too low, or too exposed to wind and rain are unlikely to be used. Boxes should be installed before exclusion occurs so that bats have an alternative roost available.

Failing to account for roost switching can lead to incomplete management. Bats may move between multiple roosts within a colony area, and excluding bats from one structure may simply shift the colony to another nearby structure. A landscape-level approach that considers the entire roost network is more effective than focusing on a single structure.

Using pesticides or fumigants to remove bats is both ineffective and illegal in many jurisdictions. These methods kill bats and may create public health hazards. Legal exclusion methods are more effective and humane.

Safety and Regulatory Context

Rabies Risk

Bats are a potential source of rabies virus transmission to humans and domestic animals. Big brown bats are the bat species in North America most frequently found to be rabid because of their high rate of human contact and submissions for rabies testing, of which 4 to 5 percent are positive. However, the prevalence of rabies in wild bat populations is low, and most bats do not carry the virus.

The serotine bat study in France found that bats can be exposed to lyssaviruses without dying and that neutralizing antibodies may persist for at least four years. This finding indicates that exposure to lyssaviruses does not always result in clinical disease.

Anyone who has been bitten or scratched by a bat should seek medical attention immediately. Bats should never be handled with bare hands. When bats must be handled, use thick gloves and avoid contact with saliva and bodily fluids.

Legal Protections

Many bat species are protected by national and international laws. In the United States, the Endangered Species Act protects listed species such as the northern long-eared bat and the Indiana bat. In Europe, the EU Habitats Directive protects all bat species. In Australia, flying foxes are protected under state and territory legislation.

These legal protections mean that disturbing or destroying bat roosts may be illegal, even when the bats are causing problems for landowners. Before taking any management action, consult with local wildlife authorities to determine the legal status of the species involved and the permitted management options.

Professional Escalation Criteria

Certain situations warrant professional assistance. Contact a wildlife rehabilitator, veterinarian, or bat specialist if you encounter:

• Bats inside living spaces, particularly bedrooms or areas where people sleep
• Bats that appear sick, injured, or unable to fly
• A bat that has bitten or scratched a person or pet
• A large maternity colony in a building that requires exclusion
• Evidence of white-nose syndrome or other disease in bats
• Bats in structures scheduled for demolition or renovation

Professionals have the training, equipment, and permits necessary to handle these situations safely and legally.

Frequently Asked Questions

When do bats give birth?

Bats give birth in late spring or early summer in temperate regions, timed to coincide with peak insect abundance. In tropical regions, births may occur year-round or be timed to rainy seasons. Urban fruit bats have been documented giving birth approximately 2.5 weeks earlier than rural fruit bats, demonstrating that local environmental conditions influence birth timing.

How long do baby bats stay with their mothers?

Baby bats typically stay with their mothers for six to eight weeks, depending on the species. They are entirely dependent on milk for the first two to three weeks, begin flying at four to five weeks, and achieve full independence by six to eight weeks of age.

Do bats build nests?

Bats do not build nests. Instead, they use existing structures such as caves, tree cavities, buildings, and bat boxes as roosts. Maternity colonies form in roosts that provide appropriate temperature, humidity, and protection from predators.

Do male bats help raise pups?

In most bat species, males do not participate in raising pups. Maternity colonies are composed of females and their young, with males roosting separately. However, the spectral bat is an exception, with research documenting prey provision as a form of biparental care in which both parents contribute to feeding young.

Do bats nurse pups that are not their own?

Some bat species engage in communal nursing. A study of Mexican free-tailed bats found that nursing is selective along genetic kinship lines, but an estimated 17 percent of females were nursing pups that could not be their offspring. Alloparental care has also been documented in Seba's short-tailed fruit bat, where lactating females accepted and carried abandoned pups.

How can I tell if a building contains a bat maternity colony?

Signs of a maternity colony include bats emerging from the structure at dusk, audible chirping from pups in the evening, guano accumulation beneath entry points, and the presence of bats during the summer months. Maternity colonies are typically present from late spring through late summer.

When is it safe to exclude bats from a building?

Exclusion should be performed only when no flightless pups are present. In temperate regions, this means excluding in early spring before bats return or in late summer or autumn after pups are volant and the colony has dispersed. Excluding bats during the maternity season traps pups inside and causes their death.

Are bats dangerous to humans?

Bats can carry rabies virus, and anyone bitten or scratched by a bat should seek medical attention immediately. However, the prevalence of rabies in wild bat populations is low, and bats generally avoid human contact. Bats should never be handled with bare hands, and professional assistance should be sought for bats in living spaces.

Related Articles

• Crossing Over in Biology: Definition, Stages, and Importance
• Animal Behavior Specialist Careers: Veterinary Behaviorists and Trainers
• Animal Behavior Specialist Careers: Veterinary Behaviorists and Trainers
• Bioinformatics Interview Preparation: How to Explain Your Analysis Decisions
• The Complete Pre-Vet Roadmap: Prerequisites, Majors, GPA, and Timeline

References and Further Reading

• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
• Synchronicity of viral shedding in molossid bat maternity colonies.. Epidemiology and infection, 2023.
• An acoustic-based method for locating maternity colonies of rare woodland bats.. PeerJ, 2023.
• Oral Sampling of Little Brown Bat (Myotis lucifugus) Maternity Colonies for SARS-CoV-2 in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic, USA.. Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, 2023.
• Communal nursing in mexican free-tailed bat maternity colonies.. Science (New York, N.Y.), 1984.
• Effects of hierarchical roost removal on northern long-eared bat (Myotis septentrionalis) maternity colonies.. PloS one, 2015.
• RELATEDNESS AND GENETIC STRUCTURE OF BIG BROWN BAT (EPTESICUS FUSCUS) MATERNITY COLONIES IN AN URBAN-WILDLAND INTERFACE WITH PERIODIC RABIES VIRUS OUTBREAKS.. Journal of wildlife diseases, 2021.
• Longitudinal survey of two serotine bat (Eptesicus serotinus) maternity colonies exposed to EBLV-1 (European Bat Lyssavirus type 1): Assessment of survival and serological status variations using capture-recapture models.. PLoS neglected tropical diseases, 2017.
• Mercury in little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) maternity colonies and its correlation with freshwater acidity in Nova Scotia, Canada.. Environmental science & technology, 2015.
• Cooperative behaviors and social interactions in the carnivorous bat Vampyrum spectrum.. 2025.
• Maternal behavior influences vocal practice and learning processes in the greater sac-winged bat.. 2025.
• Asynchronous seasonal dynamics of nycteribiid bat flies and Bartonella spp. in Australian flying foxes (Pteropus spp.).. 2026.
• Urban fruit bats give birth earlier in the season compared to rural fruit bats.. 2025.
• Parental care increases endothermy of striped hamsters (Cricetulus barabensis) rearing different litter size.. Journal of Thermal Biology, 2026.
• The role of parental care in the establishment of the offspring digestive tract microbiome in Nicrophorus defodiens. Animal Behaviour, 2021.
• Impact of a NICU parental engagement model of care on emergency room visits and hospital readmissions in preterm infants.. Inquiry@Queen's Undergraduate Research Conference Proceedings, 2021.
• Parental views of their child's care and experiences when a cleft lip and/or palate co-exists with a learning disability/need. 2018.
• Bat occurrence and microclimatic conditions of the Sima del Órgano Cave, Mexico. International Journal of Speleology, 2025.
• Cases of induced alloparental care in Seba’s short-tailed fruit bat. Neotropical Biology and Conservation, 2018.
• Bat boxes as alternative roosts for displaced bat maternity colonies. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 2000.
• Surface activity and structure of a hydrothermally-heated maternity colony of the little brown bat, Myotis lucifugus, in Alaska. Canadian Field Naturalist, 1999.
• Temporal variation in prey consumed by big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) in a maternity colony. Northwest Science, 1999.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.