Bat Monitoring: How Scientists Track Bat Populations

Bat monitoring is the systematic collection of data on bat presence, abundance, activity, and behavior using methods such as acoustic surveys, mist netting, roost counts, and citizen science programs. These techniques allow researchers, land managers, and conservation professionals to track population trends, assess habitat quality, evaluate the impacts of land-use changes, and make informed decisions about species protection. This article explains the primary methods used in bat monitoring, compares their strengths and limitations, and provides practical guidance for implementing monitoring programs.

Why Bat Monitoring Matters

Bats provide essential ecosystem services including insect pest control, pollination, and seed dispersal. They are also sensitive indicators of environmental health because their populations respond to changes in habitat quality, climate, and land management practices. Monitoring bat populations is necessary for detecting declines before species reach critical thresholds, evaluating the effectiveness of conservation actions, and understanding how bats respond to emerging threats such as wind turbines, solar farms, and infectious diseases.

Population estimates for bats are typically made during winter when bats aggregate in hibernacula, but this approach only works for species that use such sites. Summer population sizes are essential for management decisions, yet reliable methods for measuring them have been lacking. Acoustic surveys have emerged as a cost-effective alternative to capture-based methods, and acoustic activity data are already used as indices of population size. Recent work has shown that passive acoustic surveys can yield informative density estimates that respond to temporal changes in bat population size, suggesting this method may be useful for long-term monitoring. However, more information is needed to choose appropriate values for density estimation formulas, and future work should include assessments of bat behavior and detection parameters 9.

Standardized monitoring strategies are often used to study spatial and temporal ecological patterns, but local characteristics of individual field sites can affect the efficacy of these surveys. A study comparing mist-netting surveys in a Mexican lowland tropical forest and a Mediterranean dry scrub forest in Croatia found that standardized surveys detected 69.8% of the species assemblage in the tropical site but only 8.3% in the Mediterranean site. Only by employing targeted mist-netting focused on the key bat activity period did meaningful capture rates become achievable in the Mediterranean site 4. This finding underscores the importance of adapting monitoring protocols to local conditions instead of relying solely on standardized approaches.

At a Glance: Comparison of Bat Monitoring Methods

Acoustic Surveys

Acoustic monitoring is the most widely used method for assessing bat activity and distribution. Bats emit ultrasonic echolocation calls to navigate and locate prey, and these calls can be recorded using specialized microphones and detectors. Researchers analyze the recordings to identify species, measure activity levels, and estimate population density.

How Acoustic Monitoring Works

Bat detectors convert ultrasonic calls into audible or visual signals that can be analyzed. Modern detectors can record continuously for extended periods, allowing passive monitoring at fixed stations or along transects. The resulting data include call counts, signal and detection angles, and associated weather information. These data can be entered into generalized random encounter models to estimate bat density, an approach that has been validated for Indiana bats in Missouri. In that study, average predicted density increased 60% from the pre-volancy period to the post-volancy period, demonstrating that acoustic surveys can detect temporal changes in population size 9.

Limitations of Acoustic Detection

Acoustic surveys are limited by the detection range of ultrasound microphones, which makes it difficult to survey bats at height, over water, or in other hard-to-reach locations. Autonomous drones carrying bat detectors have been developed to address these limitations. A plane, quadcopter, and boat, all capable of moving autonomously between waypoints while recording bats, were built for under US$950 each. Initial testing identified ultrasound noise generated by the drones as a major issue, but iterative design of microphone placement and the vehicles themselves reduced the interference to a negligible level. Subsequent testing in real-world settings demonstrated that bats could be recorded under autonomous navigation 11.

Acoustic monitoring also cannot differentiate individual bats by their calls, which limits its use for studying individual behavior or population structure. Researchers must rely on call counts and detection parameters to estimate density, and the accuracy of these estimates depends on choosing appropriate values for the density estimation formula 9.

Acoustic Monitoring in Practice

When implementing acoustic surveys, consider the following steps:

1. Define the monitoring objective, whether it is species presence, activity levels, habitat use, or density estimation.
2. Select appropriate detectors based on the target species and survey area.
3. Establish sampling design, including fixed stations, transects, or drone-based surveys.
4. Deploy detectors according to a consistent schedule that captures peak bat activity periods.
5. Process recordings using automated classifiers and verify identifications with reference calls.
6. Analyze data using appropriate statistical models that account for detection probability and environmental covariates.
7. Store raw recordings and metadata for future reanalysis as reference libraries improve.

Mist Netting and Capture Methods

Mist netting remains an essential tool for bat monitoring because it allows researchers to physically capture bats for species confirmation, demographic assessment, and sample collection. Mist nets are fine mesh nets strung between poles that bats fly into and become entangled. Researchers extract captured bats, identify them to species, record sex, age, and reproductive condition, and may collect genetic samples, ectoparasites, or other biological data.

Effectiveness Varies by Habitat

The effectiveness of mist-netting surveys depends heavily on local conditions. In the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Mexico, standardized mist-netting along predefined transects for six hours detected 69.8% of the known species assemblage. In contrast, the same standardized approach in Krka National Park in Croatia detected only 8.3% of the species assemblage. Targeted surveys in the Croatian site, which focused on the first two to three hours after sunset and deployed nets at sites of known or assumed value to bats, achieved meaningful capture rates 4.

This variation highlights the need for site-specific survey design. Researchers working in new areas should conduct preliminary assessments to identify productive netting locations and times before committing to long-term standardized protocols.

Harp Trapping

Harp traps are specialized capture devices consisting of a frame with vertical monofilament lines and a collection bag. Bats flying into the trap hit the lines and slide down into the bag. Harp traps are particularly effective at capturing bats in confined spaces such as cave entrances, mine adits, and forest gaps. They are less visible to bats than mist nets and can be left unattended for short periods, though they require regular checking to ensure captured animals are not stressed.

Harp trapping was used effectively in a study of bats at Joker's Tunnel, an abandoned gold-mining adit in Western Australia. The study confirmed that two species, Finlayson's cave bat and Hill's sheathtail bat, were using the tunnel as a maternity roost, with the latter recorded outside its previously known distribution 23.

Integrated Capture and Acoustic Surveys

Comprehensive bat inventories often combine capture-based surveys with acoustic monitoring and genetic analysis. A systematic inventory in Campo-Ma'an National Park in Cameroon integrated mist netting, harp trapping, acoustic monitoring, and mitochondrial DNA sequencing across four habitat types and four climatic seasons. Over 73 sampling nights, researchers captured 625 bats representing 32 species across 20 genera and 6 families, approximately 27% of Cameroon's chiropteran fauna. The study recorded notable species including the IUCN Data Deficient Casinycteris campomaanensis and Myotis dieteri, and the Endangered Pseudoromicia roseveari. Primary forests supported the highest species richness with 23 species, while farms exhibited the highest abundance with 31.2% of total captures dominated by frugivorous generalists 12.

Roost Counts and Emergence Surveys

Roost counts involve observing bats at their roosting sites to estimate population size, document species presence, and track seasonal patterns. These surveys are most feasible for bats that aggregate in hibernacula during winter or in maternity colonies during summer.

Hibernacula Monitoring

Winter counts at hibernacula provide valuable population data for cave-dwelling species. However, this approach only works for bats that aggregate in hibernacula, and it does not capture information about summer populations or non-cave-roosting species 9.

Individualized monitoring using automatic techniques can reveal detailed information about hibernation phenology. A study of more than 1100 RFID-tagged Daubenton's bats and Natterer's bats collected over seven years at a hibernaculum in Germany found distinct species and demographic differences in hibernation timing. Daubenton's bats entered the hibernaculum earlier and emerged later than Natterer's bats, resulting in nearly twice as long a hibernation duration. In both species, adult females entered earlier and emerged later than adult males. Hibernation duration was shorter for juveniles than adults, with the exception of adult male Natterer's bats whose hibernation duration was shortest of all classes 10.

Emergence Surveys

Roost emergence surveys involve observing bats as they leave a roost at dusk to count individuals and document emergence timing. These surveys can be conducted by trained volunteers and provide useful data on occupancy and population size. At Joker's Tunnel in Western Australia, roost emergence observations demonstrated that citizen scientists could successfully collect useful data on emergence timing and occupancy by multiple species 23.

Disturbance Considerations

Roost counts carry inherent risks of disturbing sensitive bat populations. Normally, roost locations are kept confidential to minimize disturbance. At openly accessible sites such as Joker's Tunnel, careful management of visitor access is necessary to balance conservation with public engagement 23. Researchers and land managers should assess the potential impacts of monitoring activities before conducting roost surveys and implement protocols to minimize disturbance.

Citizen Science in Bat Monitoring

Citizen science has become an essential tool for gathering vast amounts of environmental data worldwide. Bat monitoring programs that engage volunteers can achieve broad geographic coverage and long-term data collection that would be impossible with professional researchers alone.

National Bat Monitoring Programs

The National Bat Monitoring Programme in Great Britain has collected citizen science data on bat populations for decades. Analysis of this data suggests stable or increasing population trends for many bat species, and these statistics help inform progress towards national biodiversity targets 19. However, it is unknown how sensitive these trends are to spatial and environmental biases in sampling effort.

A study using Bayesian hierarchical modeling examined the impact of spatial autocorrelation and environmental biases on population trends for four species monitored by the program. The researchers found evidence of spatial clustering in survey locations, but the previously reported population trends were broadly robust to spatial autocorrelation. Accounting for spatial autocorrelation and species-environment relationships improved model fit for most species. The nationally disaggregated models highlighted that Great Britain-wide trends mask differences between England and Scotland and illustrated large gaps in survey effort, especially in Wales 24.

Regional and Local Programs

The North American Bat Monitoring Program coordinates range-wide capture and stationary acoustic surveys across the United States. Data from this program from 2010 to 2020 were used to estimate yearly summer occupancy for four bat species of conservation concern and assess how occupancy changed after different vegetation management actions on U.S. Forest Service lands. The study identified 78 different management actions hypothesized to influence summer bat occupancy and grouped them into four vegetation management types: clear-cutting, fire, thinning, and ground vegetation management 13.

In Catalonia, Spain, the Bat Monitoring Programme has progressively evolved to include passive acoustic monitoring protocols, as well as bat box, underground, and river-bat surveys. Community ecological indices have been developed to monitor bat responses at the assemblage level to both landscape and climatic changes 22.

In Western Australia, a citizen science initiative monitored bat box occupancy at three sites through monthly visual inspections, guano recording, and acoustic surveys. Consistent occupancy was only observed at one site, likely influenced by factors such as freshwater proximity, habitat connectivity, box design, and age. Non-target fauna including wasps, moths, skinks, and geckos were also recorded. Two deceased bats were found in one box, and a live bat showing signs consistent with metabolic bone disease was observed, raising concerns about bat health in urban environments 21.

Engaging Volunteers Through Social Media

Social media can be a critical tool for attracting new users to citizen science projects. A study of the Bat Monitoring Programme found that social media gathered more than 30% of new users to the project website during a one-year study period. Posts including infographics and images of people performing better than bat photos, obtaining twice as many retweets, shares, and saves. Twitter and Instagram performance correlated with higher numbers of new user visits to the project website 18.

Practical Implementation of Bat Monitoring

Step 1: Define Objectives and Scope

Before selecting monitoring methods, clearly define the questions the monitoring program will answer. Common objectives include:

• Detecting changes in species presence or occupancy over time
• Estimating population size or density
• Assessing habitat use and selection
• Evaluating the impacts of management actions or development projects
• Documenting species diversity in under-surveyed areas
• Engaging the public in conservation

Step 2: Select Appropriate Methods

Choose methods based on the monitoring objectives, target species, habitat characteristics, available resources, and regulatory requirements. A combination of methods often provides the most complete picture. For example, acoustic surveys can cover large areas efficiently, while mist netting provides species confirmation and demographic data.

Consider the limitations of standardized approaches. A study comparing standardized and targeted mist-netting found that standardized surveys were vastly more effective in a tropical forest than in a Mediterranean dry scrub forest, and only targeted surveys achieved meaningful capture rates in the Mediterranean site 4. Monitoring programs should incorporate flexibility to adapt to local conditions.

Step 3: Establish Sampling Design

Design the sampling framework to ensure data are representative and comparable over time. Key considerations include:

• Number and location of sampling sites
• Sampling frequency and duration
• Timing of surveys relative to bat activity patterns
• Environmental covariates to record, such as weather, temperature, and moon phase
• Methods for ensuring consistent data collection across observers

Step 4: Train Personnel and Volunteers

Proper training is essential for data quality, particularly in citizen science programs. Training should cover species identification, equipment operation, data recording protocols, and safety procedures. For capture-based methods, training must include humane handling techniques and compliance with permit requirements.

Step 5: Implement Data Management Systems

Establish systems for data entry, storage, quality control, and analysis. Raw acoustic recordings should be archived for future reanalysis as reference call libraries improve. Metadata should document survey protocols, equipment settings, and environmental conditions.

Step 6: Analyze and Interpret Data

Use appropriate statistical methods that account for detection probability and sampling biases. For citizen science data, spatial autocorrelation and environmental biases should be assessed. A study of the UK National Bat Monitoring Programme found that accounting for spatial autocorrelation and species-environment relationships improved model fit for most species, and that small differences in trends could propagate over time 24.

Step 7: Report and Apply Results

Share findings with relevant stakeholders, including land managers, policymakers, and the public. Use monitoring results to inform management decisions, evaluate the effectiveness of conservation actions, and identify emerging threats.

Records and Measurements

Consistent record keeping is fundamental to effective bat monitoring. Standard data elements include:

• Date, time, and duration of surveys
• Location coordinates and habitat description
• Weather conditions including temperature, wind speed, and precipitation
• Equipment used and settings
• Observer names and qualifications
• Species identifications and confidence levels
• Capture data including sex, age, reproductive condition, and body measurements
• Roost counts and emergence timing
• Acoustic recordings and analysis results

For long-term monitoring programs, maintaining consistent protocols across years is essential for detecting trends. However, protocols should be reviewed periodically and updated as methods improve, with careful documentation of any changes to allow for appropriate analysis.

Common Failure Patterns in Bat Monitoring

Inadequate Detection Probability

All bat monitoring methods have imperfect detection. Acoustic surveys miss bats that are not echolocating or are outside microphone detection range. Mist nets miss high-flying species and bats that detect and avoid the nets. Roost counts miss individuals that are hidden or have already emerged. Monitoring programs that do not account for detection probability will produce biased estimates.

Standardized Protocols Applied Inappropriately

Standardized monitoring strategies may not work equally well across different ecosystems. The dramatic difference in mist-netting effectiveness between a tropical forest and a Mediterranean scrub forest demonstrates that local conditions must be considered 4. Programs should pilot test protocols in new areas and adapt them as needed.

Spatial Bias in Sampling Effort

Citizen science data often exhibit spatial clustering, with more sampling effort in accessible areas or near population centers. The UK National Bat Monitoring Programme showed large gaps in survey effort, especially in Wales 24. Programs should actively recruit volunteers in under-sampled areas and use statistical methods to account for spatial biases.

Equipment Failure and Data Loss

Acoustic detectors can malfunction, memory cards can fill, and batteries can fail. Capture equipment can be damaged or lost. Monitoring programs should have backup equipment, regular maintenance schedules, and data backup protocols.

Disturbance to Sensitive Roosts

Monitoring activities can disturb bats, particularly at sensitive roost sites. Disturbance during hibernation can cause bats to deplete energy reserves, and disturbance during maternity season can cause abandonment or pup mortality. Roost locations are normally kept confidential to minimize these impacts 23.

Welfare and Safety Considerations

Bat Handling

Capture and handling of bats requires appropriate permits and training. Researchers must follow humane handling protocols to minimize stress and injury. Bats should be processed quickly and released at the capture site. Handling should be avoided during sensitive periods such as hibernation and late pregnancy.

Disease Precautions

Bats can carry pathogens that pose risks to humans and to other bats. Researchers should follow recommended biosecurity protocols, including appropriate personal protective equipment and disinfection of equipment between sites. White-nose syndrome, a fungal disease affecting hibernating bats, can be spread by human activities, so decontamination protocols are essential when visiting hibernacula.

Public Safety

Citizen science programs should provide clear safety guidance to volunteers. Surveys may occur in remote areas, near water, or in abandoned structures. Volunteers should be informed of potential hazards and appropriate precautions.

Emerging Threats and Monitoring Applications

Wind Turbines

Fatal interactions with wind turbines are a major threat to bat populations worldwide. Acoustic data recorded at nacelle height in Germany showed that feeding and social activity occur at all studied wind turbines. At least seven bat species, accounting for 95% of German bat fatalities, perform song flight at wind turbines, a behavior related to mating and courtship. This suggests that male bats may find wind turbines attractive for establishing mating territories, and male songs broadcast over considerable distances could function as acoustic beacons attracting females to turbine sites. Three-dimensional thermal detection showed that bat density is higher in the rotor swept zone than in the free air space surrounding turbines, strongly suggesting that bats actively approach turbines 14.

Solar Farms

Ground-mounted solar farms can reduce bat activity and alter community composition, with effects varying among species and site contexts. A study of 15 solar farms in the French Mediterranean region found that bat activity was significantly lower within solar farms for multiple species and guilds, with further reductions toward the core zones. Fixed panel systems were associated with more bat activity than single-axis trackers, and vegetation management had species-specific outcomes. The study highlighted the importance of strategic planning, environmental impact assessments using Before-After-Control-Impact designs, and the prioritization of brownfields for solar development 17.

Guano Farming and Disease Risk

In Cambodia, farmers construct artificial household bat roosts to collect and sell guano as fertilizer. A study of these roosts found that roosting areas ranged from 42 to 327 square meters, bat abundance varied from 0 to 11,187 individuals, and guano production was between 5 and 120 kg per week. Higher guano production in the peak season was associated with greater bat abundance. The lesser Asiatic yellow house bat was the only species identified. Coronaviruses were detected in 14.6% of guano samples, 17.3% of urine samples, 2.9% of household surface samples, and 1.4% of food samples. Safe guano collection and storage, handwashing, and food covering in guano-producing communities are necessary to mitigate spillover risks 16.

Integrative Taxonomy

Accurate species identification is fundamental to bat monitoring. Integrative approaches combining morphological, acoustic, and genetic data can reveal hidden diversity. A study of horseshoe bats in Southwest China discovered an unidentified Rhinolophus species occurring sympatrically with recognized species. The species closely resembled R. osgoodi but could be distinguished by its divergent echolocation resting frequency. Genetic analysis revealed a pattern of mitochondrial subdivision contrasted by conservative nuclear signals, suggesting a complex evolutionary history. The researchers provisionally designated it as a candidate lineage warranting future validation 15.

Professional Escalation Criteria

Bat monitoring programs should have clear criteria for escalating findings to appropriate authorities or specialists. Escalation is warranted when:

• A species of conservation concern is detected in an area where it was previously unknown
• Evidence suggests a significant population decline or local extirpation
• Monitoring reveals potential disease signs, such as white-nose syndrome
• Bats are found in conflict situations, such as buildings or infrastructure
• Monitoring data indicate potential violations of wildlife protection laws
• Unusual mortality events are observed, such as fatalities at wind turbines

When escalating, provide the relevant authorities with complete monitoring data, including location information, species identifications, dates, and supporting evidence such as photographs or acoustic recordings.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the most common method used to monitor bat populations?

Acoustic surveys are the most widely used method for monitoring bat activity and distribution. They involve recording echolocation calls with specialized detectors and analyzing the recordings to identify species and measure activity levels. Acoustic surveys are less expensive and more efficient than capture surveys, and they can be deployed passively over large areas 9.

How do scientists identify bat species from acoustic recordings?

Scientists analyze the frequency, duration, and pattern of echolocation calls to identify species. Reference call libraries are used to match recorded calls to known species. However, acoustic identification has limitations, and some species have overlapping call characteristics. Integrative approaches combining acoustic data with morphological and genetic analysis can improve identification accuracy 15.

Why is mist netting still used if acoustic monitoring is available?

Mist netting allows researchers to physically capture bats for species confirmation, demographic assessment, and sample collection. Acoustic monitoring cannot differentiate individual bats or provide information on sex, age, reproductive condition, or health. Mist netting is essential for studying population structure and collecting genetic samples 4.

How can members of the public participate in bat monitoring?

Citizen science programs offer multiple ways for the public to participate, including conducting acoustic surveys, monitoring bat boxes, performing roost emergence counts, and reporting bat sightings. Programs such as the National Bat Monitoring Programme in Great Britain and the North American Bat Monitoring Program provide training and standardized protocols for volunteers 19.

What are the limitations of citizen science data for bat monitoring?

Citizen science data often exhibit spatial clustering, with more sampling effort in accessible areas. Data quality can vary among observers, and survey protocols may not be followed consistently. However, statistical methods can account for many of these biases, and studies have found that population trends derived from citizen science data are broadly robust to spatial autocorrelation 24.

How do researchers estimate bat population density from acoustic data?

Researchers enter call counts, information on signal and detection angles, and weather data into generalized random encounter models to estimate bat density. This approach has been validated for Indiana bats, with average predicted density increasing 60% from pre-volancy to post-volancy periods. However, more information is needed to choose appropriate values for the density estimation formula 9.

What should I do if I find a bat roost on my property?

If you find a bat roost, avoid disturbing the bats and contact your local wildlife agency or a licensed bat specialist for guidance. Roost locations are often kept confidential to minimize disturbance. In some regions, certain bat species are protected by law, and disturbing roosts may be illegal. Professional guidance can help you address any concerns while protecting the bats.

How do wind turbines affect bat populations?

Wind turbines cause fatal interactions with bats, and acoustic data show that bats perform song flight at turbines, a behavior related to mating and courtship. Three-dimensional thermal detection shows that bat density is higher in the rotor swept zone than in surrounding air space, suggesting bats actively approach turbines. Monitoring programs are essential for understanding these interactions and developing mitigation strategies 14.

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References and Further Reading

• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
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• Standard deviation: Standardized bat monitoring techniques work better in some ecosystems.. PloS one, 2024.
• Pacritinib versus best available therapy for the treatment of myelofibrosis irrespective of baseline cytopenias (PERSIST-1): an international, randomised, phase 3 trial.. The Lancet. Haematology, 2017.
• Efficacy and safety of fedratinib in patients with myelofibrosis previously treated with ruxolitinib (FREEDOM2): results from a multicentre, open-label, randomised, controlled, phase 3 trial.. The Lancet. Haematology, 2024.
• Basophil Activation Test: Bridging Allergy and Oncology for Diagnostic, Therapeutic and Prognostic Applications in AllergoOncology: An EAACI Position Paper.. Allergy, 2025.
• Thermogenic Phenotyping in Mice.. Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.), 2023.
• Acoustic monitoring yields informative bat population density estimates.. Ecology and evolution, 2024.
• Long-term individualized monitoring of sympatric bat species reveals distinct species- and demographic differences in hibernation phenology.. BMC ecology and evolution, 2022.
• Autonomous drones are a viable tool for acoustic bat surveys. 2019.
• Diversity and distribution of bats in and around Campo-Ma&rsquo,an National Park, Cameroon, with an initial acoustic database. 2026.
• Evaluating evidence of changing regional occupancy of four bat species in response to forest management practices. 2026.
• Song flight and 3D thermal detection provide evidence for bat attraction to wind turbines in Central Europe.. 2026.
• Integrative Taxonomy Reveals a Candidate Lineage Within the &lt,i&gt,Rhinolophus macrotis&lt,/i&gt, Group.. 2026.
• Viral Risks at the Human-Bat Interface: Household Bat Guano Farming in Rural Cambodia.. 2026.
• Balancing renewable energy and biodiversity: Assessing solar farm effects on bat activity. 2026.
• How do social media posts enhance public interest in a citizen science project? Insights from the Bat Monitoring Programme. Zeitschrift f\ ur Jagdwissenschaft, 2025.
• Citizen science reveals trends in bat populations: The National Bat Monitoring Programme in Great Britain. 2015.
• Implementing the North American Bat Monitoring Program in Nebraska: An Assessment of Nebraska Bats with an Emphasis on Citizen Science. 2019.
• Citizen Science in Action: Preliminary Observations on Bat Box Use in the Perth and Peel Regions, Western Australia. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 2025.
• Concurrent Butterfly, Bat and Small Mammal Monitoring Programmes Using Citizen Science in Catalonia (NE Spain): A Historical Review and Future Directions. Diversity, 2021.
• Bat Conservation, Citizen Science and Heritage Tourism: An Intersection at Joker’s Tunnel, Western Australia. Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia, 2026.
• Accounting for spatial autocorrelation and environment are important to derive robust bat population trends from citizen science data. Ecological Indicators, 2022.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.