Are Humans Animals? A Biological Classification Primer

The direct answer is yes. Humans are animals. In biological classification, every living organism on Earth belongs to a hierarchical system that groups species by shared evolutionary ancestry. Humans belong to the kingdom Animalia, the phylum Chordata, the class Mammalia, the order Primates, the family Hominidae, the genus Homo, and the species Homo sapiens. This classification is not a matter of opinion or cultural perspective. It is the standard scientific framework used by researchers, medical professionals, and educators worldwide to study life on Earth.

This article explains the taxonomic position of humans within the animal kingdom, addresses common misconceptions about what it means to be an animal, and provides the scientific evidence that supports this classification. The content is written for students, researchers, life-science professionals, and informed general readers who want a clear and accurate understanding of human biological classification.

What Does It Mean to Be an Animal?

The word animal carries different meanings in everyday language and in scientific contexts. In casual conversation, people often use animal to mean non-human creatures, especially mammals. In biology, the term has a precise definition. Animals are multicellular eukaryotic organisms that belong to the kingdom Animalia. They are heterotrophic, meaning they obtain energy by consuming other organisms instead of producing their own food through photosynthesis. Animals are also characterized by their ability to move at some stage of their life cycle, their lack of cell walls, and their development from embryonic layers.

The scientific classification of organisms follows a system first formalized by Carl Linnaeus in the 18th century. This system, called taxonomy, groups organisms into nested categories based on shared characteristics and evolutionary relationships. The major taxonomic ranks from broadest to most specific are domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Each rank represents a level of biological similarity, with species being the most specific and domain being the most inclusive.

Taxonomy serves practical purposes beyond simple labeling. In medicine, accurate classification of pathogens and diseases guides diagnosis and treatment decisions. The way researchers categorize cancer types influences how patients are diagnosed and treated, and it shapes decisions about biomarker and drug development. Similarly, the classification of viruses into species and genera helps researchers understand virus-host interactions and prepare for future outbreaks. The same taxonomic principles that place humans in the animal kingdom also underpin modern medical research and public health practice.

The Taxonomic Hierarchy of Humans

The complete taxonomic classification of modern humans places Homo sapiens within a nested series of groups, each reflecting shared ancestry with other organisms.

Domain Eukarya

All organisms with complex cells that contain a nucleus belong to the domain Eukarya. This domain includes animals, plants, fungi, and single-celled protists. Humans share this domain with every other multicellular organism on Earth.

Kingdom Animalia

The kingdom Animalia contains all animals. Members of this kingdom are multicellular, heterotrophic, and typically capable of movement. Humans share this kingdom with insects, fish, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and all other animals. The defining features of animals include the absence of cell walls, the presence of collagen as a structural protein, and development through a blastula stage in most groups.

Phylum Chordata

The phylum Chordata includes animals that possess a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and a post-anal tail at some stage of development. In humans, these features appear during embryonic development. The notochord is later replaced by the vertebral column, which places humans in the subphylum Vertebrata. Other chordates include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and other mammals.

Class Mammalia

Mammals are warm-blooded vertebrates characterized by the presence of mammary glands, hair or fur, and three middle ear bones. Humans share this class with dogs, cats, whales, bats, and primates. Mammals nourish their young with milk produced by mammary glands, a feature unique to this class.

Order Primates

The order Primates includes lemurs, monkeys, apes, and humans. Primates are characterized by forward-facing eyes, grasping hands and feet, and relatively large brains compared to body size. Humans share this order with all other primates, reflecting a common evolutionary ancestry.

Family Hominidae

The family Hominidae, commonly called great apes, includes orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, and humans. Genetic and morphological evidence supports a particularly close relationship between modern humans and the species within the genus Pan, which includes chimpanzees and bonobos. This close relationship is central to understanding human evolution.

Genus Homo and Species Homo sapiens

The genus Homo includes modern humans and several extinct species of early humans. The only extant member of this genus is Homo sapiens. Human evolution is the study of the lineage comprising species more closely related to modern humans than to chimpanzees. The stem species of this lineage is called the common hominin ancestor, and its only living representative is Homo sapiens.

At a Glance: Human Taxonomic Classification

The following table summarizes the complete taxonomic classification of humans and provides examples of other organisms at each rank.

This classification is not arbitrary. Each rank reflects evolutionary relationships supported by multiple lines of evidence, including comparative anatomy, molecular genetics, and the fossil record.

Evidence Supporting Human Classification as Animals

The placement of humans within the animal kingdom is supported by multiple independent lines of scientific evidence. These lines of evidence converge on the same conclusion, which is the standard view in biology.

Anatomical Evidence

Humans share fundamental anatomical features with other animals. These features include a bilateral body plan, a vertebral column, four limbs, and organ systems such as circulatory, respiratory, digestive, and nervous systems. Comparative anatomy reveals that human bones, muscles, and organs are homologous to those of other mammals, meaning they share a common evolutionary origin.

The study of fossil hominins provides direct evidence of human evolutionary relationships. Researchers have analyzed wrist ligament insertion sites in fossil hominins including Australopithecus afarensis, Australopithecus anamensis, Australopithecus sediba, Paranthropus robustus, Homo neanderthalensis, and archaic Homo sapiens. These analyses reveal marked interspecies differences in the size, orientation, and position of specific ligament insertions, reflecting divergent functional adaptations. The morphology of these insertions aligns with known behavioral and locomotor patterns described for these species, highlighting the reliability of anatomical features as evidence for evolutionary relationships.

Dental morphology also provides evidence for human evolutionary relationships. Analyses of dental crown area in fossil hominins have been used to test taxonomic hypotheses about early human fossils. These studies demonstrate that dental characteristics can distinguish between species and provide insight into evolutionary relationships within the human lineage.

Molecular and Genetic Evidence

Molecular biology provides some of the strongest evidence for human classification. Comparisons of DNA sequences show that humans share approximately 98 to 99 percent of their genetic material with chimpanzees. This genetic similarity reflects a recent common ancestor and places humans firmly within the primate and hominid groups.

The study of proteins also supports human classification. Lysozymes, which are hydrolytic enzymes found throughout the animal kingdom, show distinct types that are distributed across different animal phyla. Examination of the phylogenetic distribution of these enzymes reveals that c-type lysozymes are predominantly present in the phylum Chordata and in different classes of Arthropoda. Humans, as chordates, possess c-type lysozymes, consistent with their classification within this phylum.

Developmental Evidence

Human embryonic development recapitulates features seen in other animals. Early human embryos possess pharyngeal arches, a notochord, and a tail, structures that are characteristic of chordates. These features appear transiently during development and then transform into adult structures. The presence of these features in human embryos provides evidence of shared ancestry with other chordates.

Behavioral Evidence

Behavioral biology also supports human classification as animals. Humans exhibit behaviors that are continuous with those of other animals, including social organization, communication, parental care, and learning. The study of animal behavior, including human behavior, falls within the scope of biology and recognizes humans as part of the animal kingdom.

Common Misconceptions About Humans as Animals

Despite the clear scientific consensus, several misconceptions persist about the classification of humans as animals. These misconceptions often arise from conflating scientific classification with cultural or religious beliefs.

Misconception: Animal Means Non-Human

The most common misconception is that the word animal refers only to non-human creatures. In scientific terminology, humans are animals because they belong to the kingdom Animalia. The everyday use of animal to mean non-human is a linguistic convention, not a biological one. When biologists say that humans are animals, they are using the term in its technical sense.

Misconception: Being an Animal Implies No Unique Human Qualities

Some people resist the classification of humans as animals because they believe it denies human uniqueness. This is a misunderstanding. Recognizing that humans are animals does not mean that humans are identical to other animals. Humans possess unique cognitive abilities, language, culture, and technological innovation that distinguish them from other species. The classification of humans as animals is about evolutionary ancestry, not about denying human distinctiveness.

Misconception: Evolution Is Incompatible with Human Classification

Some people believe that accepting human classification as animals requires accepting a particular view of evolution. In fact, the classification of humans within the animal kingdom predates Darwin's theory of evolution. Linnaeus classified humans as primates in the 18th century based on anatomical similarities. Evolutionary theory later provided a mechanism to explain why these similarities exist. The classification of humans as animals does not depend on any particular theory of evolution, though evolutionary biology provides the most coherent explanation for the pattern of similarities and differences among organisms.

Misconception: Taxonomy Is Merely a Human Convenience

Some people view taxonomy as an arbitrary system of naming that does not reflect real biological relationships. This view is incorrect. Modern taxonomy aims to reflect evolutionary relationships, which are real features of the natural world. The classification of humans as animals reflects actual shared ancestry with other animal species. Taxonomic systems are refined as new evidence emerges, but the fundamental relationships they describe are not arbitrary.

Why Taxonomy Matters in Practice

Taxonomy is not an abstract academic exercise. It has practical applications in medicine, agriculture, conservation, and public health.

Medical Research and Treatment

Accurate classification of organisms is essential for medical research. The way diseases are categorized influences diagnosis, treatment, and drug development. Researchers have begun to establish mechanism-based taxonomies for inflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases to aid drug development and personalized therapy. Similarly, the classification of cancer types dictates how patients are diagnosed and treated and shapes decisions about biomarker and drug development.

The classification of pathogens is equally important. The Coronaviridae Study Group of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses assessed the placement of the virus causing COVID-19 within the Coronaviridae family. Based on phylogeny, taxonomy, and established practice, the group recognized this virus as forming a sister clade to the prototype human and bat severe acute respiratory syndrome coronaviruses and designated it as SARS-CoV-2. This taxonomic work was essential for communication, research, and public health response.

Veterinary Medicine and Animal Agriculture

Taxonomy is fundamental to veterinary medicine and animal agriculture. Understanding the classification of domestic animals helps veterinarians and farmers make informed decisions about breeding, nutrition, and disease management. The recognition that humans and other animals share evolutionary relationships has practical implications for understanding zoonotic diseases, which are diseases that can be transmitted between animals and humans.

The One Health perspective recognizes that human health, animal health, and environmental health are interconnected. Research on antimicrobial resistance in Escherichia coli strains isolated from humans and pet animals demonstrates that bacteria can cause infections in humans and animals alike. The ease of E. coli transmission via the fecal-oral route among humans, environmental sources, and animals highlights the importance of understanding these connections.

Conservation Biology

Taxonomy is essential for conservation biology. Accurate classification of species is necessary for identifying endangered species, understanding biodiversity, and developing conservation strategies. The classification of humans as animals within the primate order places humans within a broader context of primate conservation. Understanding human evolutionary relationships with other primates informs conservation efforts for endangered primate species.

The Relationship Between Humans and Other Animals

The classification of humans as animals has implications for how we understand our relationship with other species. This relationship is complex and multifaceted.

Evolutionary Relationships

Humans share a common ancestor with all other animals. The closest living relatives of humans are chimpanzees and bonobos, with whom humans share a recent common ancestor. The study of human evolution focuses on the lineage comprising species more closely related to modern humans than to chimpanzees. This lineage includes several extinct species of early humans, and its only extant member is Homo sapiens.

The fossil record provides direct evidence of human evolutionary history. Fossil hominins from sites such as Dmanisi in Georgia have been the subject of extensive taxonomic debate. The Dmanisi assemblage is among the most debated collections of hominin fossils due to its early age and extreme morphological diversity relative to other Homo assemblages. Analyses of dental crown area have been used to test whether these fossils represent one species with sexual dimorphism or multiple species. These debates illustrate how taxonomic questions are addressed through careful analysis of evidence.

Shared Biological Processes

Humans share fundamental biological processes with other animals. These processes include cellular metabolism, reproduction, development, and immune function. The immune systems of jawed vertebrates, including humans, produce antibodies and T cell receptors that recognize and respond to pathogens. The international ImMunoGeneTics information system, known as IMGT, was created to manage the huge diversity of antibodies and T cell receptors. This system provides a common language for immunoinformatics and is used in basic, veterinary, and medical research.

Shared Health Concerns

Humans and other animals share susceptibility to many diseases. Zoonotic diseases, which can be transmitted between animals and humans, represent a significant public health concern. The COVID-19 pandemic was the third documented spillover of an animal coronavirus to humans in only two decades that resulted in a major epidemic. Understanding the classification of viruses and their relationships with animal hosts is essential for pandemic preparedness.

Antimicrobial resistance is another shared health concern. The overuse and misuse of antibiotics has accelerated the rapid emergence of antibiotic resistance. Research on interventions to optimize the use of antibiotics in humans, animals, and the environment from a One Health perspective has found that most policies and interventions focus mainly on the human health aspect, with less effort targeted toward the environment and animal health sectors. This imbalance represents a gap in addressing antimicrobial resistance.

Practical Assessment: Verifying Human Classification

For students, researchers, and life-science professionals who want to verify or demonstrate the classification of humans as animals, the following steps provide a practical approach.

Step 1: Review the Taxonomic Hierarchy

Begin by reviewing the complete taxonomic classification of humans. Write out each rank from domain to species and identify the defining characteristics of each group. This exercise reinforces the nested structure of biological classification.

Step 2: Compare Anatomical Features

Compare human anatomical features with those of other animals. Focus on features that define major taxonomic groups. For example, verify that humans possess the defining features of chordates, mammals, and primates. This comparison can be done through dissection, examination of skeletons, or review of anatomical atlases.

Step 3: Examine Molecular Evidence

Review molecular evidence supporting human classification. Compare DNA or protein sequences between humans and other animals. Public databases such as those maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information provide access to genetic sequence data. The NCBI Literature Resources and PubMed databases allow researchers to search for peer-reviewed studies on human evolutionary relationships.

Step 4: Consult Primary Literature

Consult primary scientific literature on human taxonomy and evolution. Peer-reviewed journals publish studies on human evolutionary relationships, fossil hominins, and comparative biology. Searching PubMed with terms such as human taxonomy, hominin evolution, or primate phylogeny will return relevant studies.

Step 5: Document Your Findings

Document your findings in a structured format. Create a table showing the taxonomic classification of humans and the evidence supporting each rank. Note any areas where evidence is limited or debated. This documentation provides a reference for future work.

Records and Measurements in Taxonomic Studies

Taxonomic studies rely on careful records and measurements. These records are essential for reproducibility and for testing taxonomic hypotheses.

Morphometric Measurements

Morphometric measurements quantify the size and shape of biological structures. In human evolution research, measurements of dental crown area, cranial dimensions, and ligament insertion sites provide data for taxonomic analyses. These measurements are typically taken using calipers, digital imaging systems, or three-dimensional scanning technologies.

The study of wrist ligament insertion sites in fossil hominins used three-dimensional geometric morphometric analysis. This approach quantifies the size, orientation, and position of ligament insertions on bone surfaces. The results showed marked interspecies differences that reflect divergent functional adaptations. These measurements provide a reliable proxy for inferring habitual activity in extinct taxa.

Genetic Sequence Data

Genetic sequence data provide molecular evidence for evolutionary relationships. DNA sequences from different species are compared to estimate evolutionary distances and construct phylogenetic trees. These analyses require careful record keeping, including documentation of sample sources, sequencing methods, and quality control measures.

Fossil Records

Fossil records document the discovery, context, and characteristics of fossil specimens. Each specimen is assigned a catalog number and its provenance is recorded. Measurements and photographs are taken to document morphological features. These records are essential for taxonomic studies and for resolving debates about species identification.

Common Failure Patterns in Understanding Human Classification

Misunderstandings about human classification as animals often follow recognizable patterns. Recognizing these patterns can help educators and communicators address them effectively.

Pattern 1: Conflating Scientific and Everyday Language

The most common failure pattern is conflating the scientific meaning of animal with the everyday meaning. When people hear that humans are animals, they may interpret this as a claim that humans are no different from other animals. This misinterpretation leads to resistance to the scientific classification.

Pattern 2: Assuming Classification Implies Value Judgments

Some people assume that classifying humans as animals implies a value judgment about human worth. This assumption is incorrect. Biological classification describes evolutionary relationships, not moral or spiritual value. Humans can be classified as animals and still be considered unique in important ways.

Pattern 3: Confusing Ancestry with Identity

Some people confuse the concept of common ancestry with the idea that humans descended from modern apes. Humans and modern apes share a common ancestor, but humans did not evolve from chimpanzees or gorillas. The evolutionary lineage leading to humans and the lineage leading to chimpanzees diverged millions of years ago.

Pattern 4: Overlooking Multiple Lines of Evidence

Some people focus on a single line of evidence and ignore others. For example, someone might question human classification based on a misunderstanding of fossil evidence while overlooking the overwhelming molecular evidence. Understanding human classification requires considering all available evidence.

Limitations and Debates in Human Taxonomy

While the classification of humans as animals is well established, specific aspects of human taxonomy remain subjects of active research and debate.

Debates About Fossil Hominin Classification

The classification of fossil hominins is often debated. The Dmanisi fossils from Georgia provide an example. Some researchers interpret the morphological diversity in this assemblage as evidence of sexual dimorphism within a single species, while others propose that the fossils represent more than one Homo species. Analyses of dental crown area have been used to test these hypotheses, with results supporting the presence of two distinct taxa in some analyses.

Refinement of Taxonomic Relationships

Taxonomic relationships are refined as new evidence emerges. The family Hominidae, which traditionally included only great apes and humans, has been reorganized based on molecular evidence. Some researchers now recognize a tribe Hominini that includes humans and their closest extinct relatives. These refinements reflect the dynamic nature of taxonomic knowledge.

Limitations of Morphological Evidence

Morphological evidence has limitations for reconstructing evolutionary relationships. Similar features can evolve independently in unrelated species, a phenomenon called convergent evolution. Conversely, closely related species can differ markedly in morphology. These limitations mean that morphological evidence must be interpreted alongside molecular and genetic evidence.

Safety and Regulatory Context

The classification of humans as animals has implications for safety and regulation in several contexts.

Zoonotic Disease Surveillance

Recognizing that humans are animals with evolutionary relationships to other species is essential for understanding zoonotic disease transmission. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the need for studying viruses at the species level to complement research focused on individual pathogenic viruses. Understanding virus-host interactions in an ever-changing environment enhances preparedness for future outbreaks.

Antimicrobial Resistance Management

The One Health perspective recognizes that antimicrobial resistance affects humans, animals, and the environment. Research has found that most interventions to optimize antibiotic use focus on human healthcare settings, with less attention to animal health and environmental sectors. Addressing antimicrobial resistance requires coordinated action across all three sectors.

Animal Welfare Considerations

Recognizing humans as animals does not diminish the importance of animal welfare. Rather, it places human responsibilities toward other animals within a scientific context. Understanding the evolutionary relationships between humans and other animals can inform ethical decisions about animal treatment in agriculture, research, and conservation.

Professional Escalation Criteria

Students, researchers, and life-science professionals may encounter situations where they need to escalate questions about human classification to appropriate experts.

When to Consult a Taxonomist

Consult a professional taxonomist when you need authoritative identification or classification of organisms. Taxonomists have specialized training in classification methods and access to reference collections. They can provide expert opinions on disputed classifications.

When to Consult an Evolutionary Biologist

Consult an evolutionary biologist when you need to understand the evolutionary relationships among organisms. Evolutionary biologists can explain the evidence supporting particular classifications and can address questions about evolutionary processes.

When to Consult a Medical Professional

Consult a medical professional when you have questions about diseases that affect humans and other animals. Medical professionals can provide guidance on zoonotic disease prevention and treatment.

When to Consult a Bioethicist

Consult a bioethicist when you have questions about the ethical implications of human classification or about human responsibilities toward other animals. Bioethicists can help navigate complex ethical questions that arise from biological knowledge.

Frequently Asked Questions

Are human beings animals?

Yes, human beings are animals. In biological classification, humans belong to the kingdom Animalia. This classification is based on shared anatomical, molecular, genetic, and developmental characteristics with other animals. The scientific definition of animal includes all multicellular eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophic and lack cell walls. Humans meet all these criteria.

Are humans an animal in the same way that dogs and cats are animals?

Yes, humans are animals in the same biological sense that dogs and cats are animals. All three species belong to the kingdom Animalia and the phylum Chordata. Humans belong to the class Mammalia, as do dogs and cats. The differences between humans and other animals are differences of degree, not of kind. Humans possess unique cognitive and cultural capabilities, but these do not place humans outside the animal kingdom.

Why do people sometimes say that humans are not animals?

People sometimes say that humans are not animals because they use the word animal to mean non-human creatures. This everyday usage differs from the scientific definition. In biology, animal is a technical term that includes all members of the kingdom Animalia. The scientific classification of humans as animals does not deny human uniqueness or imply that humans are identical to other animals.

What is the scientific basis for classifying humans as animals?

The scientific basis for classifying humans as animals includes multiple lines of evidence. Anatomically, humans share homologous structures with other vertebrates and mammals. Molecularly, human DNA and proteins show close similarity to those of other animals, particularly primates. Developmentally, human embryos exhibit features characteristic of chordates. Genetically, humans share approximately 98 to 99 percent of their DNA with chimpanzees. These lines of evidence converge on the conclusion that humans belong to the animal kingdom.

Does classifying humans as animals mean that humans evolved from monkeys?

No, classifying humans as animals does not mean that humans evolved from monkeys. Humans and monkeys share a common ancestor that lived millions of years ago. The evolutionary lineage leading to humans diverged from the lineage leading to modern monkeys. Humans are more closely related to chimpanzees and bonobos than to monkeys. The classification of humans as primates reflects this evolutionary relationship.

How does human classification as animals relate to human evolution?

Human classification as animals is the foundation for understanding human evolution. Because humans are animals, they are subject to the same evolutionary processes that affect all living organisms. The study of human evolution focuses on the lineage comprising species more closely related to modern humans than to chimpanzees. This lineage includes several extinct species of early humans, and its only extant member is Homo sapiens.

Why is it important for medical research that humans are classified as animals?

The classification of humans as animals is important for medical research because it allows researchers to use animal models to study human diseases. Because humans share evolutionary relationships and biological processes with other animals, findings from animal studies can often be applied to human health. Additionally, understanding zoonotic diseases requires recognizing that humans and other animals share susceptibility to many pathogens.

Does the classification of humans as animals affect how we should treat other animals?

The classification of humans as animals provides a scientific context for considering our relationships with other animals. Recognizing shared evolutionary ancestry and biological processes can inform ethical decisions about animal treatment. However, the classification itself does not dictate specific ethical positions. Ethical decisions about animal treatment involve values and principles that go beyond biological classification.

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References and Further Reading

• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
• Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive learning objectives.. Journal of the Medical Library Association : JMLA, 2015.
• The species Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARS-CoV-2.. Nature microbiology, 2020.
• Bloom's taxonomy in health professions education: Associations with exam scores, clinical reasoning, and instructional effectiveness.. Currents in pharmacy teaching & learning, 2025.
• Behaviour change techniques: the development and evaluation of a taxonomic method for reporting and describing behaviour change interventions (a suite of five studies involving consensus methods, randomised controlled trials and analysis of qualitative data).. Health technology assessment (Winchester, England), 2015.
• Lysozymes in the animal kingdom.. Journal of biosciences, 2010.
• Human evolution: taxonomy and paleobiology.. Journal of anatomy, 2000.
• Cancer taxonomy: pathology beyond pathology.. European journal of cancer (Oxford, England : 1990), 2019.
• Towards the taxonomy of human disease.. Nature reviews. Drug discovery, 2015.
• Exploring tear biomarkers with shotgun proteomics for retinoblastoma diagnosis: a pilot study.. 2026.
• IMGT&lt,sup&gt,®&lt,/sup&gt, Nomenclature of Immunoglobulins (IG) or Antibodies and T Cell Receptors (TR): A Common Language for Immunoinformatics and Artificial Intelligence (AI).. 2026.
• Correction: Epidemiological attribution of knee and ankle injuries in firefighters.. 2026.
• Mapping of Phenotype Specific Host-Microbiome Protein-Protein Interaction Networks in Colorectal Cancer Using Deep Learning.. 2026.
• Inferences about fossil hominin locomotion through 3D morphometric analysis of wrist ligament insertion sites.. 2025.
• Testing the taxonomy of Dmanisi hominin fossils through dental crown area.. 2025.
• Interventions to optimize the use of antibiotics in China: A scoping review of evidence from humans, animals, and the environment from a One Health perspective. One Health, 2022.
• An Assessment of Scientific Evidence Relating to the Effect of Early Experience on the Risk of Human-Directed Aggression by Adult Dogs. Animals, 2023.
• Systematic review of the scientific evidence on ethylene oxide as a human carcinogen.. Chemico-Biological Interactions, 2022.
• Biological Functions of Exopolysaccharides from Lactic Acid Bacteria and Their Potential Benefits for Humans and Farmed Animals. Foods, 2022.
• Systematic review of the scientific evidence of the pulmonary carcinogenicity of talc. Frontiers in Public Health, 2022.
• Antimicrobial Resistance in Escherichia coli Strains Isolated from Humans and Pet Animals. Antibiotics, 2021.
• People and Zoos: The Role and Implementation of Direct Human-Animal Interactions in Zoological Establishments. Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens, 2025.
• Taxonomy of phleboviruses, emphasizing those that are sandfly-borne†. Viruses, 2021.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.